Prologue, Paragraph 1

Seynt Poul the apostil. Saint Paul the Apostle, one of the most influential leaders in the early Christian church, is the named author of thirteen books in the New Testament, including the Second Epistle to Timothy, which is quoted here. Though modern scholarship disputes Paul’s authorship of the Epistles to Timothy, it was unquestioned in religious writing of the fourteenth century.↩back to note source

alle tho that wilne . . . suffre persecucioun and anguyschis. 2 Timothy 3:12.↩back to note source

I am with you al dayes to the endyng of this world. Matthew 28:20. The precise sources for the remainder of the quotation are unclear, but for Have ye no drede, see Luke 12:32.↩back to note source

“Affieth in me, for I have overcomen the world.” John 16:33.↩back to note source

thorugh his mildenesse overecame hem. Throughout the English Apocalypse, phrases occasionally appear which have no clear connection to the Anglo-Norman text they are ostensibly translating. In many cases, these are simply mistranslations, and the source of the error can be found with reasonable certainty by comparing alternatives from AN and Middle English, and from the Vulgate if applicable (for example, see notes for 5.¶3 and 21.¶7, below). In other cases, the English translator deliberately revises or makes additions, for reasons that may or may not be clear (see notes for 13.¶9, noon schal han power and that is to seie, and 20.¶3 below). In still other cases, such as this one, the appearance of an independent phrase is simply a mystery. It appears to be either a mistranslation or a revision of the AN en sa humanité [in his humanity] (Fridner, p. 2), but the reason for the change is unclear.↩back to note source

Prologue, Paragraph 2

alle tho that schulen be dampned. In this case, a mistranslation gives the phrase a precisely opposite meaning. The AN les esliz Damnedeu (Fridner, p. 2) are “the chosen of God,” not the damned.↩back to note source

asilen . . . arisen. The word asilen is not attested in the MED. H uses assailen [assail], and clearly the same meaning is intended here. The unusual construction may be intended as a visual parallel with the word arisen in the manuscript line below it. The long hooked s (ſ) of asilen resembles in shape the r of arisen, and the l of asilen is nearly identical to the long s of arisen. The parallel image of the two words mirrors the parallelism in the sentence — when adversities “assail” the righteous, at that moment the blessings of grace and glory “arise.”↩back to note source

Prologue, Paragraph 3

thre maner sightis. Though no source is mentioned, the prologue may be referring here to St. Augustine’s categorization of three types of vision — bodily, spiritual, and intellectual — from his commentary De Genesi ad litteram [The Literal Meaning of Genesis] (2:185–86). The prologue does not explicitly list bodily vision as one of the thre maner sightis, but it does describe two types of goostly or spiritual visions (sleeping and waking) and another type of sight called intellectus, a spiritual understanding within the soul, given by God through revelation.↩back to note source

Prologue, Paragraphs 3–4

as Pharo saugh . . . but he understode what it was to menen. Perhaps following Augustine’s categories, the prologue provides two biblical examples of “ghostly” or spiritual sight — Pharaoh, who saw dream visions in his sleep (Genesis 41:1–38) and Moses, who saw a vision while awake (Exodus 3:1–6) — and one biblical example of “intellectual” sight in the Apostle Paul, who ascended to heaven spiritually and saw the secrets of God with his “spiritual eye” (2 Corinthians 12:2–4). The vision of John in the Apocalypse, the prologue says, is an example of this latter category of intellectual sight, since John both saw visions and understood what they meant.↩back to note source

Prologue, Paragraph 4

holy chirches of Asie. The seven churches the angel instructs John to address in chapters 2–3 of the Apocalypse — Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea — are all located in Asia Minor, the southwestern peninsula of modern Turkey.↩back to note source

Chapter 1, Paragraph 2

sevene spiritis. The “seven spirits” that gather around God’s throne appear here and three more times in the opening chapters of the Apocalypse — in 3:1 (though both manuscripts of the English Apocalypse drop this mention which appears in the Vulgate; see textual note for 3.¶1, And to the aungele), 4:5 (4.¶3), and 5:6 (5.¶3). These spirits are apparently separate from the seven angels of the churches in Asia Minor, as they are sente into alle londis in 5:6, but what they are is a matter of theological interpretation and debate. The gloss in chapter 5 provides one of several traditional interpretations for their identity — they are “the seven giftis of the Holi Goost” as listed in Isaias 11:2–3 (see note for 5.¶4, the seven giftis, below).↩back to note source

Chapter 1, Paragraph 8

sevene graces of the Hooly Goost. The seven graces, or spiritual gifts, of the Holy Spirit which the gloss says the seven candlesticks represent are listed in Romans 12:6–8: prophecy, service, teaching, admonishing, giving, sovereignty (power or authority), and mercy. They are not to be confused with the seven “gifts of the Spirit” from the Book of Isaias, which the gloss assigns to the spirits around the throne (see notes for 1.¶2, above, and 5.¶4, the seven giftis, below).↩back to note source

the maydenesse son. A translation of the AN le fiz de la Virge (Fridner, p. 7), from an interpretation of the Vulgate Filio hominis. In verse 1:13 of MS, the angel who visits John is described as oon lyk to the sone of man, following the LV, but the gloss follows H and other earlier manuscripts of the English Apocalypse in calling him the maidens son. This may be evidence that the biblical copy text the Plimpton scribe worked from was incomplete or corrupted, requiring the LV to fill in gaps, though the gloss accompanying it was complete. Alternatively, the scribe may simply have preferred the LV translation in certain sections of the biblical text, but did not make corresponding changes in the gloss. See also notes for 2.¶6, 4.¶4, Bi the voisis, 10.¶2, heele, 13.¶6, That he biddith us, 17.¶3, delices of the wyn, 18.¶2, and 18.¶11, vois of the hurlyng, below.↩back to note source

Chapter 1, Paragraph 10

prelatis. MS and H use the same word here for the AN prelat [church official] in place of the Vulgate angeli [angels] and LV aungelis. It is the first example of a translation decision that will run throughout chapter 2 of the AN and English Apocalypse — referring to the angels of the seven churches in Asia Minor, to whom the Apostle John is tasked to bring messages, as prelates or bishops (see notes for bischop in 2.¶¶1, 5, 7, and 11, below). The Plimpton manuscript begins to follow the Vulgate in using aungele starting in 3:1, but P continues to use bisschop or simply the chirche throughout chapter 3 as well (see textual notes for And to the aungele in 3.¶¶1, 4–5, and 7–9). These are not mistranslations; they represent rather a decision to incorporate an interpretation of the text into the text itself at the expense of literal meaning. The interpretation in question is not an unusual or controversial one — clearly the intended audience for John’s messages to the churches is not angels but the leaders of those churches. St. Jerome makes this point in his prologue to the Apocalypse, which appears in translation at the start of the Wycliffite LV: Joon writeth to sevene chirchis of Asye and to her sevene bysshops of the forseide thingis (Pro.¶7). The LV, however, stays faithful to the literal words in the Vulgate and does not incorporate this interpretation into its translation. The gloss commentary of the English Apocalypse also makes frequent reference to bishops and prelates and reflects on the qualities of a faithful church leader, for example in the gloss that follows this passage (1.¶11).↩back to note source

Chapter 1, Paragraph 11

holi prelatis that gyven hem to ryt bileve . . . conseile men after Goddis lawe. Given the generally anticlerical tone of the gloss (see multiple notes for 13.¶9 — now gyven hem to his prelatis, noon schal han power, and that is to seie — as well as 16.¶11, a child that cannot kepen an appil, 18.¶9, and 20.¶3, below), within a manuscript that contains Lollard material, it may be significant that the MS alters H’s reference here to church officials shriving congregants through the sacrament of penance (see textual note) — that is, hearing confession, prescribing works of satisfaction, and absolving from sin — and instead focuses solely on the priest’s duty to preach and conseile men after Goddis lawe. Late fourteenth and early fifteenth-century Lollards tended to be suspicious of the priestly office in general and debated its necessity and role in performing sacraments like penance, especially if the priest in question had fallen into mortal sin. For example, John Wyclif argues in his late tract De Blasphemia that “It is of no use, and is even hurtful, to confess to a simoniacal priest,” and recommends that if all available priests are sinful, the parishioner “ought then to prefer to confess to one of the faithful laity” (Wyclif, De Blasphemia, ed. Dziewicki, pp. 117, 125). Later Lollards echo this argument, for example in conclusions 8 and 9 of the Thirty-Seven Conclusions, a public document defending their beliefs before the English Parliament in 1395 (Forshall, ed., Remonstrance, pp. 18–22). The gloss makes many other references to schrift and penaunce which MS leaves unchanged, but H’s reference here to prelatis who shryven hem is its most direct description of priests performing the sacrament.↩back to note source

Chapter 2, Paragraph 1

bischop of the chirche of Effesie. See note for 1.¶10, above.↩back to note source

Chapter 2, Paragraph 4

“Though I have as muche strengthe . . . al is not worthi to me.” 1 Corinthians 13:2–3.↩back to note source

“That Y seie to oon, I seie to alle.” Mark 13:37. See also note for 3.¶10, below.↩back to note source

Chapter 2, Paragraph 5

the chirche of Smyrma. MS and H do not make reference to a bishop here, but they drop the Vulgate and LV reference to an aungel. See note for 1.¶10, above.↩back to note source

Chapter 2, Paragraph 6

By the asaute of fals men. The gloss here follows the translation of verse 2:9 that appears in H and other early manuscripts of the English Apocalypse, rather than MS which follows LV (see textual note for 2.¶5, and art blasfemed). See note for 1.¶8, the maydenesse son, above.↩back to note source

Chapter 2, Paragraph 7

bischop of the chirche of Pergame. See note for 1.¶10, above.↩back to note source

Antifas. Little is known about the early Christian martyr Antipas beyond what can be gleaned from the Apocalypse text — that he was a leader in the church at Pergamum, that it was an evil place (where Satanas dwellith), and that he was martyred. Eastern Orthodox tradition, which venerates Antipas as a saint, adds that he was the bishop of Pergamum appointed by John the Apostle himself (which might explain his mention in the text), and that he died by burning.↩back to note source

Chapter 2, Paragraph 8

the techyng of Balam, that taught the kyng Balac . . . sacrificis of ydolis. Balaam is a prophet whose story is told in the Book of Numbers, starting in chapter 22. King Balak of Moab bribes him to curse Israel, but he refuses. However, the text later blames Balaam for the idolatry and sexual sins of the Israelites, which lead to a deadly plague (Numbers 31:16). The Apocalypse cites him here as an example of one who leads others astray and compares him to the Nicolaitans, a group of heretics whose exact sin is not named.↩back to note source

Chapter 2, Paragraph 9

manna hyd . . . new name shal be writtun. For a description of manna, the bread from heaven which God uses to feed the Israelites as they wander in the desert, see Exodus 16:4–35. The manna the angel refers to here is hyd [hidden], reserved for those in the churches who overcome the persecutions and heresies mentioned in preceding verses. The harde ston on which God writes the names of those who have overcome is a translation of the AN blanche dure pierre [hard white stone]. The Vulgate has et dabo illi caclculum candidum [and I will give him a white stone/marble], and LV follows: whyt stoon. It is unclear why AN adds that the stone is hard or why the English Apocalypse drops that it is white, but the sense is that the stone is like a monument with words etched into its face.↩back to note source

Chapter 2, Paragraph 11

bischop of the chirche of Tiatire. See note for 1.¶10, above.↩back to note source

cledes. A translation of AN archal or orchal (Fridner, pp. 7, 18) from the Vulgate auricalco [copper or brass]. The same word is translated in 1:15 as latoune, where MS follows the LV. H translates both instances of the word as gleedes or gledes [live coals], since the angel’s feet are as in a brennynge chymeney.↩back to note source

Chapter 2, Paragraph 12

a womman Jezabelle that seith sche is a prophetesse. Little is known about the woman Jezebel who appears in the Apocalypse, beyond what can be intuited from the text — that she styled herself a prophetess and led the Christians of Thyatira astray with forbidden sexual practices and idol worship. Her name is likely an epithet, since it is also the name of an ancient queen of Israel whose reign is recounted in the Book of 3 Kings, chapters 18–21, and her death in 4 Kings chapter 9. Queen Jezebel was married to the evil King Ahab, led Israel in worshipping Canaanite gods, persecuted the prophet Elijah, and died by defenestration in fulfillment of a prophecy that she would be eaten by dogs (4 Kings 9:32–37). The fate promised to the “Jezebel” of the Apocalypse is no less gruesome — those who have slept with her will be in torment, and her children (likely referring to her followers) will be killed.↩back to note source

Chapter 2, Paragraph 13

the develis techynge. Apparently a reference to the teaching of the aforementioned prophetess Jezebel. The English Apocalypse condenses several verses in 2:24–29, and here it cuts a further explanation about this teaching which the LV preserves (see textual note for 2.¶13). LV describes it as the highnesse of Sathanas, hou thei seyn [as they call it], perhaps a mocking reference to the followers of Jezebel calling their teaching “the highness of God.”↩back to note source

misbilevande. All manuscripts of the English Apocalypse follow AN in saying that those who overcome will have power over “misbelievers.” LV, however, uses the more generic term folkis [peoples, mankind] to translate the Vulgate gentes [nations], origin of the word “Gentiles” (see note for 11.¶2, below). The English Apocalypse translator is not misreading or mistranslating a word here, but rather incorporating an interpretation into it.↩back to note source

Chapter 3, Paragraph 1

I shal come to thee as a theef. See Matthew 24:42–44, Luke 12:39–40, and 1 Thessalonians 5:1–3. See also note for 16.¶9, “Lo, I come as a thef . . .” below.↩back to note source

whanne thou shalt witen no word. The Vulgate in verse 3:3 reads et nescies qua hora veniam ad te [and you will not know what hour I will come to you]. LV: and thu shalt not wite in what our I shal come to thee. The unusual phrasing in every manuscript of the English Apocalypse derives from an apparent mistranslation in the AN: quant vos ne saverez mot [when you will not know a word] (Fridner, p. 21).↩back to note source

Chapter 3, Paragraph 2

clade in whiyt clothinge. The soiled clothing represents sin and defilement, whereas white clothing represents purification and righteousness. See Zacharias 3:3–4; Matthew 22:11–13.↩back to note source

Chapter 3, Paragraph 3

thei have the name of goode lyf and ben dead. The gloss here does not match the biblical passage above, which says simply that men seyn thu art deed (3.¶1). H follows the Vulgate in verse 3:1 in saying men seien that thou art ded and thou lyvest, but MS drops the final phrase about living, perhaps a scribal error caused by the folio break (from fol. 206r to fol. 206v). Alternatively, this may be another example of the biblical copy text being corrupt where the gloss is complete.↩back to note source

Chapter 3, Paragraph 6

“Lo, I schal make thine ennemys fale bifore thi feet.” Psalm 109:1 in the Vulgate; Psalm 110:1 in the King James Version and most modern editions of the Bible. See also Luke 20:43, Acts 2:35, and Hebrews 1:13.↩back to note source

Chapter 3, Paragraph 10

ben wers . . . defaute of techynge. Whiting cites “to be worse than a Jew” as a proverbial English phrase, and one quotation includes “a Sarsyn” (Whiting, J42, p. 310). The proverb reflects the idea the gloss expresses here — that Jews and Muslims are less culpable for their unbelief in Christ than Christians who become unbelievers, because they have not received the same teaching.↩back to note source

onementis. A translation of AN oignement (Fridner, p. 28). The same word appears in 3:18 in AN as collire (Fridner, p. 26), from the Vulgate collyrio [lotion or salve], and MS translates it there as colerie, that is medicyne for iyen gaderid of dyverse eerbis, following the LV. P translates the word in the biblical text and the gloss as oyle and oynementez, respectively.↩back to note source

“That I seie to on, I saie to alle.” Mark 13:37. See also note for 2.¶4, above.↩back to note source

Chapter 4, Paragraph 2

the two colurrs that ben in the reynebowe. The gloss here interprets the second half of verse 4:3, which the MS biblical text omits. This is also the case for H and every other manuscript of the English Apocalypse, further evidence that its biblical copytext was incomplete or corrupted in comparison to its gloss. See note for 1.¶8, the maydenesse son, above.↩back to note source

God saveth hise. The translator frequently uses hise as an absolute pronoun, rather than as a possessive followed by a noun. In most cases, the subject is God or Jesus, and hise refers to his people or followers. See MED, his (pron.2), sense 1a(c), “his people, his subjects, his followers or disciples.”↩back to note source

Chapter 4, Paragraph 4

twelve patriarkis and prophetis and the twelve apostlis and the holi seyntis. The twelve patriarchs are the twelve sons of Jacob, who are listed in Genesis 35:22–26 and correspond to the Twelve Tribes of Israel: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph, Benjamin, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, and Asher. These tribes will be named in Apocalypse 7:4–8, but in a different order and with the tribe of Manasseh (an offshoot of Joseph) replacing Dan (see note for 7.¶2, below). It is unclear whether the gloss intends the word prophetis to refer to the patriarchs, or if this is a separate group, perhaps the authors of the prophetic books of the Hebrew Bible — in which case they would not count toward the total of 24 elders on thrones in the passage. The Twelve Apostles are the twelve disciples of Jesus listed in Matthew 10:2–4, Mark 3:16–19, and Luke 6:13–16: Simon Peter, Andrew, James, John, Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew, James the son of Alphaeus, Thaddeus, Simon the Zealot, and Judas Iscariot, with Matthias here replacing Judas (Acts 1:26). The holi seyntis, like the prophetis, might refer to the Apostles or be a separate group.↩back to note source

Bi the voisis. Neither MS nor P include the reference to “voices” in 4:5, though the word appears in the Vulgate, AN, and one late manuscript of the English Apocalypse (see textual note for 4.¶3, lightynge and thundrynge). The gloss’s reference to it here is further evidence that the gloss is keyed to a separate and less corrupt biblical text than the biblical copy text for Plimpton. See note for 1.¶8, the maydenesse son, above.↩back to note source

Chapter 4, Paragraph 6

the lioun is dede . . . the cry of his fadir. The belief that lion cubs were born dead and brought to life after three days when their father breathed on them, and with it the interpretation of lions as symbols for Christ, was commonplace in biblical commentaries by the fourteenth century. Its earliest iteration may be traced to the second-century Greek text Physiologus (Curley, ed., pp. 3–4), translated into Latin in the fifth century, whose descriptions of the allegorical meanings of various animals were often referenced, with or without citation, in medieval bestiaries. See also note for 5.¶2, as the lion doith awey, below.↩back to note source

the olde lawe. The “Old Law” refers to the Law of Moses, the legal code for ancient Israel which begins with the Ten Commandments in Exodus 20 and includes all of the sacrificial and purification regulations that follow in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. As the gloss illustrates here, Christian theologians viewed Christ’s death on the cross as a type of blood sacrifice that satisfied the requirements of the Old Law for Christian believers and instituted a New Law rooted in the teachings of Jesus.↩back to note source

And bi the oxe . . . clerest is of sight. The association of Gospel writers with various creatures is traditional — Luke with an ox, Matthew with a man (or angel), and John with an eagle. The gloss does not mention the association of Mark with a lion, possibly because the lion has already been mentioned as a figure of Christ a few lines earlier (see note for the lioun is dede, above), or because the AN copy text was corrupt. Fridner notes that a few copies of AN include the line Par le leon est signefié seint Marc, pur ceo qu’il parolle especiaument de la resurrectiun [By the lion is signified Saint Mark, for he speaks especially of the resurrection] (Fridner, p. 219).↩back to note source

“bisi to do wel not oneli bifor God but also biforne the folk.” 2 Corinthians 8:21.↩back to note source

Chapter 5, Paragraph 1

the leon of the kynde of Juda that is roote of Davith. Both Jesus and his ancestor King David belonged to the Israelite tribe of Judah, and Jesus is named here the “lion of Judah,” a reference to Genesis 49:9–10, which associates the tribe of Judah with a lion and foretells that it will produce a line of kings. Jesus is also named here the “root of David” in reference to a prophecy in Isaias 11:1–10 that a messianic figure will arise from the “root of Jesse,” David’s father — in other words, from the lineage of King David. The Apostle Paul explicitly identifies this figure as Christ and calls him the “Root of Jesse” in Romans 15:12. See also note for 22.¶8, below.↩back to note source

Chapter 5, Paragraph 2

the saveour to bien man agen. The direct biblical reference for the gloss’s description of Jesus “buying mankind again” — paying a ransom or redemption price — might be 1 Peter 1:18–19, which speaks of Christian believers being redeemed not by silver or gold but by Christ’s blood; the Vulgate redempti [redeemed] is translated by the Wycliffite LV as bought agen. The specific financial metaphor of Christ “buying” humanity’s salvation with his sacrifice appears elsewhere in the New Testament epistles, for example in 1 Corinthians 6:20, ye ben bought with greet pris (LV). But the general metaphor of sin as a financial debt that must be repaid to God or forgiven runs throughout the Bible, including the well-known phrase from the Lord’s Prayer, “Forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors” (Matthew 6:12; Luke 11:4), and the parables of Jesus that use debt as an analogy for sin (see Matthew 18:21–34; Luke 7:36–50).↩back to note source

the seven sacramentis of holi chirche or the seven giftis of the Holi Gost. The gloss gives two possible interpretations for the seven clasps (better known in modern English as the “seven seals”). The first possibility is that they are the seven sacraments of the church, the most important rituals of the Christian faith through which God extends grace to mankind — baptism, confirmation, the Eucharist (or Communion), penance (which includes confession, satisfaction, and absolution), extreme unction (or anointing), ordination, and marriage. The other potential interpretation the gloss provides for the seven clasps is that they are the seven “gifts of the Spirit” from Isaias 11:2–3 (see note for 5.¶4, below).↩back to note source

as the lion doith awey his trace with his tayle . . . lyved as to the godhed. The belief that lions swept away their own tracks with their tails to hide and slept with their eyes open can be traced to the second-century Physiologus, in the same passage which claims that lion cubs are born dead for three days (see note for 4.¶6, above). The gloss uses these traits to draw parallels between the lion and Christ, who hid his divine nature from “the proud” and was both dead in the flesh and alive in spirit at the same time after the Crucifixion. In a similar way, the Physiologus says that Christ, “the spiritual lion of the tribe of Judah . . . hid his intelligible tracks (that is, his divine nature), from the unbelieving Jews,” and that he “physically slept on the cross, but his divine nature always keeps watch in the right hand of the Father” (Curley, ed. and trans., pp. 3–4).↩back to note source

Chapter 5, Paragraph 3

harpis and fithelis of gold ful of swete smele. The word fithelis [fiddles] appears in both MS and earlier manuscripts, including H and P, and is an apparent mistranslation of the AN phioles (Fridner, p. 40), from the Vulgate phialas [vials]. LV translates the word as viols, an alternate spelling of MED, fiole (n.), sense 1a, “A small glass or metal bowl or cup for liquids, incense, etc.” However, the Middle English viol can also refer to a violin or fiddle (see MED, viol [n.]), which might explain the translator’s confusion. Adding to the potential confusion with phioles is the word’s pairing with a musical instrument — harpes in AN, translated directly to Middle English as harpis — though the phrase ful of swete smele should make clear that the phioles, unlike the harps, are objects that can be filled with perfume or incense. Only one later manuscript of the English Apocalypse, Bodley Laud Misc. 33, accurately translates the word as fiolis [vials] (Fridner, p. 40). Since fithelis is attested in the earliest manuscripts, its usage in MS did not likely originate with the LV.↩back to note source

and sungen. MS and H both omit the object of the verb “sing,” which appears in the Vulgate as canticum novum [new song], AN as chaunçon novele [new song], and LV as “a new song.” Three other manuscripts of the English Apocalypse, including two of the earliest copies, contain some variation on new songes (Fridner, p. 40), and the gloss below also refers to new songis (see 5.¶4) — an instance of MS and H departing together from what was likely the original translation.↩back to note source

Chapter 5, Paragraph 4

the seven giftis of the Holi Goost that Jhesu Crist hade, as Ysaye saith. Many of the prophecies of Isaiah, from the book of the Hebrew Bible that bears his name, were interpreted by later Christian writers as foretelling the life of Jesus Christ. Isaias 11:2 lists seven “gifts of the Spirit,” which the Apocalypse commentary here notes were all possessed by Jesus; this passage in Isaias as a whole describes a figure traditionally interpreted by Christian theologians as Christ. The gloss here also supplies an identity for the sevene spiritis around the throne of God, which first appeared in 1:4, and says they embody the seven gifts (see note for 1.¶2, above). The LV translates the seven gifts as wisdom, undurstondyng, counsel, strengthe, kunnyng [knowledge], pitee [piety], and drede [fear] of the Lord.↩back to note source

violis. The biblical text uses fithelis [fiddles] to describe these receptacles of perfume (see note for 5.¶3, above), while the gloss follows the LV in using violis, which can mean either “vials” or “violins.” See MED, viol (n.) and alternate spellings for fiole (n.). This may be a rare example of the LV’s influence on the gloss in addition to the biblical text. H, P, and other early manuscripts omit the phrase in the gloss which contains the word (see textual note, That thei hadden the violis), whereas six later manuscripts in addition to Plimpton use phioles or viols (Fridner, p. 42).↩back to note source

Chapter 6, Paragraph 7

with swerde and with hunger and of the deeth of the bestis of erthe. The Vulgate includes the conjunction et [and] after morte [death] to make clear that the horseman brings four distinct types of destruction: the sword (war), hunger (famine), death (translated “plague” or “pestilence” in modern editions), and the beasts of the earth. AN and LV follow suit. By dropping the conjunction — a mistranslation that appears in all manuscripts — the English Apocalypse appears to reduce the types of destruction to three, with “the death of the beasts of the earth” as the third. The gloss, however, separates them again, and regards deeth and the bestes of the erthe as betokening two separate things (6.¶8). Modern editions which translate the original Greek rather than the Vulgate also make the pronoun hym at the start of this sentence plural, to indicate that each one of the four riders, traditionally known as the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, carries a means of destruction, rather than the last rider carrying all four. For example, the King James Version of 1611 reads: “And power was given unto them over the fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, and with hunger, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth.”↩back to note source

Chapter 6, Paragraph 11

And the heven partide as a book folden. This unusual image appears in both MS and H and the AN original. The word partide translates the Vulgate recessit, “receded” or “departed.” However, since the AN and Middle English translators have replaced the original biblical metaphor of a scroll being rolled up with that of a book, partide also suggests the image of heaven opening like a book’s pages.↩back to note source

Chapter 6, Paragraph 13

And his membris that shul be than in tribulacions, that bitokeneth the harde haire. The biblical text above (6.¶11) describes the darkening of the sun with the metaphor of the sak of an hayre — a piece of sackcloth made from coarse animal skin with hair, also called a haircloth. See MED, her(e (n.2), sense 3, which notes that haircloth could be used to make a shroud, the awning of a boat, or an altar covering, any one of which fits the metaphor of the sun being covered or shaded. The gloss extends this metaphor further, with a reference to another common use for haircloth — as an uncomfortable garment or hairshirt, which could serve as an aid in penance (see sense 2). The apocalyptic tribulations that Jesus’s followers will undergo are like the “hard” or rough cloth of a penitential garment that will lead them to greater righteousness.↩back to note source

Chapter 7, Paragraph 2

Of the kynde of Ruben . . . Of the kynde of Manasse, as manye. The twelve kyndes listed here are twelve tribes of Israel, descended from the twelve sons of Jacob listed in Genesis 35:22–26 (see note for 4.¶4, twelve patriarkis, above). However, the tribe of Manassah, which along with the tribe of Ephraim was descended from a son of Joseph (see Genesis 41:51–52), replaces Dan in the list of twelve. The biblical text gives no explanation for the absence of either Dan or Ephraim, but the two tribes may be excluded because they led a rebellion which caused the kingdom of Israel to divide following King Solomon’s death, and their lands served as the locations of two golden idols which the northern half of the kingdom established in competition with the Temple at Jerusalem (3 Kings 12:25–30). The English Apocalypse translation follows a slightly different ordering than the AN and Vulgate in placing Manassah last in the list (see the textual note for this passage), perhaps to emphasize the replacement.↩back to note source

Chapter 7, Paragraph 3

soithfaste penance bitokeneth fourti, and the feith of the Gospelis foure. The association of penance with the number forty is a traditional one, as it is the number of days the Flood of Noah lasted (Genesis 7:12), the number of years the nation of Israel wandered in the desert (Exodus 16:35), and the number of days Jesus spent fasting in the wilderness before starting his public ministry (Matthew 4:2; Mark 1:13; Luke 4:2). In the church calendar, the season of Lent, the period from Ash Wednesday to Easter which is associated with fasting and penance, is also forty days excluding Sundays. The number four is here associated with “the faith of the Gospels” because there are four Gospel accounts in the New Testament: the Books of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.↩back to note source

Chapter 7, Paragraph 4

a gret asemblé that noon myght telle of alle manere of men. The “great assembly” here may include the 144,000 members of the tribes of Israel mentioned previously, but it is distinct from them and so vast as to be uncountable. The phrase of alle manere of men is a translation of AN de tutes manieres de genz [of all manners of people] (Fridner, p. 56), which is an abridgement of the Vulgate ex omnibus gentibus, et tribubus, et populis, et linguis [from all nations and tribes and peoples and languages]. This international multitude will later be identified, in verse 14, as martyrs and other victims of persecution (7.¶8).↩back to note source

palmis in her hondis. Palm branches were traditionally associated with victory, and they recall Jesus’s Triumphant Entry into Jerusalem the week before his Crucifixion, when crowds waved palm branches and laid them in the road as he rode a donkey in the manner of a conquering king. All four Gospels recount the event, but only John specifically notes that the branches were from palm trees (John 12:12–15).↩back to note source

Chapter 7, Paragraph 8

coverne. A translation of AN gouvernera (Fridner, p. 58) and Vulgate reget [shepherd]. H uses governe, and the MS spelling is unusual. However, see alternate spellings for MED, governour (n.) and governing(e, (ger.). In the passage, the Lamb on the throne protects his people from the sunne and noon hete, which may have prompted the scribe to think of the similar word coveren [cover], which can also imply protection (see coveren [v.1], sense 10b).↩back to note source

Chapter 8, Paragraph 2

voices. See MED, voice (n.), sense 2a: “The sound or noise of thunder . . . a thunderclap.”↩back to note source

Chapter 9, Paragraph 1

the depe pit. The bottomless pit or abyss referenced here may be associated with hell, but it might also be considered a specific place where demons are held prisoner. Demons in a scene from the Gospel of Luke express their fear of it when Jesus threatens to send them there (Luke 8:31), and the Apostle Paul uses the same word to describe where Jesus goes after his death (Romans 10:7). It will be described later in the Apocalypse as the place from which several tribulations will arise, such as the smoke and giant locusts in verses 2 and 3 and the Beast in 11:7 (11.¶6), and as the place where Satan will be imprisoned in 20:1–2 (20.¶1). The demon Abaddon will be described as the aungele of the pit in 9:11 (9.¶3), in the Vulgate angelum abyssi [angel of the abyss].↩back to note source

Chapter 9, Paragraph 2

Bi the heigh . . . heigh lif. The translation plays with the double meaning of the Middle English homonym heigh in the gloss. The heigh [hay, or grass] will not be harmed by the plague of locusts, in the same way that God will not allow spiritual harm to come to those of heigh [high, or holy] life. This wordplay is unique to the Middle English, as the AN original uses the words fein [hay] and haute [high, holy] (Fridner, p. 68). Punning on the literal and figurative meanings of “high” can also be seen in the preceding sentence, in the description of the locusts themselves, which mow not fleen highe [cannot fly high], in the same way the Antichrist’s disciples cannot fleen highe figuratively, in spiritual understanding or good works.↩back to note source

Chapter 9, Paragraph 3

in Latyn Exterminans. The original Greek text of the Apocalypse lists the Hebrew (Abaddon) and Greek (Apollyon) names for the demon. The Latin name Exterminans, which also means “destruction,” originates with the Vulgate.↩back to note source

Chapter 9, Paragraph 6

foure corneres. A mistranslation of the Vulgate cornibus [horns], which originates with the AN and is followed by all manuscripts of the English Apocalypse (Fridner, p. 71). The LV also has foure corners here, possibly evidence of influence from the earlier Apocalypse, but just as likely an independent mistranslation, perhaps the result of confusion with the proverbial phrase “four corners of the earth” used elsewhere in the text — see 7:1 (7.¶1) and 20:7 (20.¶4).↩back to note source

and bi an oure . . . and bi a yeer. H and several other manuscripts omit the first and in this series, but the sense is nevertheless confusing. The Vulgate qui parati erant in horam [who were ready for an hour] indicates that the angels are prepared and waiting for these lengths of time before they strike.↩back to note source

Chapter 9, Paragraph 9

woundis. For the use of “wounds” to mean “plagues,” see MED, wound (n.), sense 5b. Two of the four illustrative quotes in this MED entry are verse 11:6 of the Apocalypse (11.¶4), one from an English Apocalypse manuscript, Bodley Rawlinson C.750, and the other from the Wycliffite EV. The text will use woundis to mean “plagues” throughout, but see note for 16.¶1, below, for one example of wounde meaning a literal physical wound.↩back to note source

Chapter 10, Paragraph 2

“I am not come . . . to fulfillen it.” Matthew 5:17.↩back to note source

heele. The earliest manuscripts of the English Apocalypse, including H and P, use this term for “conceal,” both in the biblical text verse 10:4 (see textual note for 10.¶1) and in the gloss. MS follows the LV in using marke in the biblical text, which means to seal or conceal; see MED, marken (v.1), sense 5. MS uses heele in the gloss, however, providing further evidence that though the biblical text may be influenced by the LV, the commentary remains keyed to the earlier translation. See note for 1.¶8, the maydenesse son, above.↩back to note source

Chapter 11, Paragraph 2

misbilevende. MS’s word for “unbelievers,” which H renders as mysbilevande men, is a translation of AN mescreanz [heretics, unbelievers] from the Vulgate gentibus, a word which literally means “the nations,” referring to all nations besides Israel, and from which the word “Gentiles” derives. Though gentil as a word for non-Jews was available in the fourteenth century (see MED, gentil [n.], sense 3), LV translates the Vulgate here as hethen [heathen] men. Later translations such as the Douay-Rheims and the King James Version use “Gentiles.” See also note for 21.¶11, below.↩back to note source

Chapter 11, Paragraph 3

“I chastise . . . maad reprevable.” 1 Corinthians 9:27.↩back to note source

puten hem out thurgh techynge. MS and H both depart from the AN original here in saying that the Antichrist’s disciples will be driven out by techynge, not by escomengement, or excommunication (Fridner, p. 80). Since the alteration appears in the earliest manuscripts of the English Apocalypse, it is not specifically Lollard in origin, but the Lollard compiler of the Plimpton manuscript would certainly have approved the emphasis on good teaching and preaching rather than on the church’s institutional processes.↩back to note source

two and fourti monethis . . . two tymes and half a tyme. MS is incomplete in this passage, so H supplies nine missing words to make the description comprehensible (see textual note, a yere). The gloss here interprets the 42-month period of persecution described in 11:2 (see 11.¶2) and links it to the tyme that is tolde biforn; that is, the earlier description of an angel slaying one-third of mankind bi an oure and bi a day and bi a moneth and bi a yeer (see 9:15; 9.¶6). By interpreting the “hour” as half a year and the other three time periods as full years, the gloss reaches the three-and-a-half year total which corresponds with 42 months, and also with 1,260 days in the passage that immediately follows (see 11:3; 11.¶4). The gloss also looks forward to a later passage that shale be sette biforn, in which a woman representing the church will hide from a dragon representing the devil, for oo tyme and two tymes and half a tyme (12:14), or three-and-a-half years. This later phrase will be omitted in MS, though it does appear in H (see textual note for 12.¶9, bi a tyme). Both MS and H also appear to have omitted a necessary phrase in this passage, as neither the two tymes and half a tyme of MS nor the o tyme and half a tyme of H fully add up.↩back to note source

Chapter 11, Paragraph 5

Enok and Elie. The two prophets referenced here are Enoch and Elijah. Enoch is a patriarch in the Book of Genesis, the great-grandfather of Noah, and supposed author of the non-biblical apocalyptic text the Book of Enoch; Elijah was a prophet of ancient Israel who was persecuted by King Ahab and Queen Jezebel (see note for 2.¶12, above). The gloss presents both figures as a model for preachers who duren [endure] in so great persecucioun. What they also have in common in biblical accounts is that both ascend directly to heaven without suffering physical death (Genesis 5:21–24; 4 Kings 2:1–12).↩back to note source

“If that we han . . . paied with that.” 1 Timothy 6:8.↩back to note source

han myghte to closen that thei be not drede. What exactly the good prechours have the power to do to counteract the manas [menace] of the proude mighti is unclear, since the word closen has a wide variety of potential meanings — see MED, closen (v.). In subsequent lines in the gloss, the good preachers are able to turn lecherous people to blood by making them aware of their filth, and to smite covetous people with woundis [plagues] by revealing their sin, both presumably figurative actions. “Closing” the menace of the mighty might mean shutting it out of the church (senses 1, 10), refuting or embarrassing it (sense 5b), imprisoning or entombing it (senses 5b, 6a), or covering it up (sense 8a, 11b).↩back to note source

Chapter 11, Paragraph 10

as he dide Job. A reference to the Book of Job, which tells the story of a righteous man afflicted with torments by Satan to test his faith (see Job 1:1–2:8).↩back to note source

Chapter 11, Paragraph 12

biforn Godis face fellen. A slight mistranslation of the Vulgate, in which the elders sit in conspectu Dei [in the sight of God] and ceciderunt in facies suas [fell on their faces]. In the AN from which the MS translates, the elders who sit devant la face Deu cheïrent adenz [before the face of God fell facedown] (Fridner, p. 88). Compare with the LV, which translates directly from the Vulgate: in the sight of the Lord fellen on her facis.↩back to note source

Chapter 12, Paragraph 2

aperide. Plimpton is the only one of the English Apocalypse manuscripts to follow the LV in using the word apperide here, rather than shewed. Verses 11:19 and 12:1, both of which appear at the start of chapter 12 in the MS, seem to have been influenced by LV generally in their word choices (see textual notes for 12.¶1, voises and thundres, and 12.¶2, aperide).↩back to note source

Chapter 12, Paragraph 4

seven hedis and ten hornes. MS and H both omit the phrase that follows in the Vulgate: et in capitibus ejus diademata septem [and on his heads seven crowns]. LV includes the phrase, translated as and in the heedis of him seven diademes, and one late manuscript of the English Apocalypse, Bodley Rawlinson C.750, follows suit (Fridner, p. 91). The original translation may have mistakenly dropped the phrase because the AN French words for “horns” (cornes) and “crowns” (corones) look nearly identical. The gloss that follows (12.¶5) makes no mention of the crowns either, but see verse 13:1 (13.¶1), a parallel passage which includes ten diademes.↩back to note source

Chapter 12, Paragraph 5

seven hed synnes. The gloss interprets the dragon’s seven heads as a series of tyrants who commit the Seven Deadly Sins (pride, greed, lust, envy, gluttony, wrath, and sloth), with a pun on hed as “chief” or “primary.” The gloss then links the dragon’s actions directly to two of the Deadly Sins, coveitise [greed] and lecherie [lust], with the former “maintaining” or supporting the latter. Commentaries on the Seven Deadly Sins frequently described the ways the various sins interacted with one another in this manner. For example, the Parson’s sermon in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales lists the fifth of the Deadly Sins as “Avarice and Coveitise” and quotes the Apostle Paul in 1 Timothy 6:10 saying “the roote of alle harmes is Coveitise” (CT X[I].738). In its discourse on “Lecherie,” the seventh of the Deadly Sins, the Parson’s sermon draws a link similar to the gloss, describing the way the physical temptation of lust flows from the broader spiritual sin of greed: “for the coveitise of eyen [eyes] folweth the coveitise of the herte” (852).↩back to note source

to devoren childer thourgh synne whan thei ben borun thurgh baptem. See 1 Peter 5:8–9 for the biblical image of the devil as a lion looking to devour Christian believers. The “children” that the gloss refers to here may be literal children or, with the reference to being borun thurgh baptem, any members of the church who have experienced rebirth through the sacrament of baptism (see, for example, the imagery of baptism as rebirth in John 3:3–5 and Romans 6:3–4). The gloss clearly does not view baptism as an automatic protection from sin; in fact, it may even serve as an allurement for the devil, who wishes to lead Christians astray.↩back to note source

Chapter 12, Paragraph 8

For than he hath beste tyme, for his tyme is schortest. The passage of commentary that concludes with this line gives several examples of the devil being frustrated by righteous people, who resist his temptations, set their hearts on spiritual things, act with meekness, and practice penance. The final example of righteous people thwarting the devil is the old man and woman on their deathbeds who resist the devil’s final attacks on their faith. The phrase For than he hath beste tyme is not in the AN original, which notes simply that the devil tries to encumber people with sin when he knows his time is short (Fridner, p. 96). The meaning of beste in this context is not fully clear — it might imply that the devil is more successful in these attacks because he is more vigorous, or it may mean that this near-death time is simply the most important or the most urgent, both for the devil and for the one resisting him.↩back to note source

Chapter 13, Paragraph 2

a liberde of divers colours. The biblical text in the preceding paragraph does not explicitly mention the leopard’s colors or spots, but its interpretation as a symbol for hypocrisy or deceit is traditional. The Book of Vices and Virtues (ca. 1400) comments on this same passage: “The body of the best, as seith seynt John, was lik a liberd, for right as a leopard hath dyverse coloures, right so hath the devel dyverse suteltees and giles” (Francis, ed., Book of Vices and Virtues, p. 10).↩back to note source

And hym is geven power two and fourti monethis. The gloss comments here on a passage the biblical text has not yet reached, verse 13:5 (see 13.¶4).↩back to note source

Chapter 13, Paragraph 6

“The erthe is goven . . . the unpitous.” Job 9:24.↩back to note source

Abel the first man that was sclaynn. A reference to the story of Cain and Abel, the first murder in human history according to the Book of Genesis. Cain kills his younger brother Abel over jealousy that Abel’s animal sacrifices are pleasing to God (Genesis 4:1–8), which the gloss presents as evidence that God’s chosen people have always been persecuted.↩back to note source

That he biddith us . . . stedfast bileve and suffrance. This sentence glosses verse 10 of the biblical text above (13.¶5). However, its description of people suffering peyne and tormentis and persecuciouns in pacience is clearly a reference to the second half of the verse about the pacience and the feith of seyntis, which has been dropped from the MS (see textual note for 13.¶5, swerd) — another indication that the copy text for the biblical translation was likely corrupt while the gloss was more complete. see note for 1.¶8, the maydenesse son, above.↩back to note source

Chapter 13, paragraph 8

telle. This translation of the Vulgate computet [calculate] and AN acunte [account] (Fridner, p. 105) expresses a wide range of meanings in Middle English; see MED, tellen (v.), which lists eighteen senses. The primary meaning in the gloss appears to be MED sense 17a, “To count, reckon” or 17e, “To calculate,” but a variety of secondary meanings may be relevant, including to say, tell a story, write, disclose, announce, describe, preach, prophesy, report, argue, discern, and judge. The LV acounte, which is closer to the AN acunte, has a similar range of meanings as the modern English “account,” which can mean to “make an accounting” or “give an account”; see MED, accounten (v.), which lists six senses. In context, the passage says that only those with proper understanding can “tell” the number of the beast — calculate it, report it to others, and discern its significance.↩back to note source

Chapter 13, Paragraph 9

as the serpent disceyved Eve. A reference to the story of the Fall of Mankind in Genesis, in which a serpent (often associated with Satan) persuades Eve to eat a forbidden fruit by casting doubt on the truthfulness of God’s words (Genesis 3:1–7). The gloss links the dragon of the Apocalypse to this serpent, and to false preachers who similarly deceive.↩back to note source

the Holi Gost descendith in hem in the liknesse of fier. A reference to the day of Pentecost in the Book of Acts, in which the Holy Spirit descends like tongues of fire onto Jesus’s followers and allows them to speak in other languages (Acts 2:1–4). It is unclear why the gloss describes this event as occurring priveli [secretly], since the Pentecost scene is a very public one involving people from all nations (2:5–13), and it concludes with a public sermon from Peter to thousands of people (2:14–41). However, in the chapter before this scene, Jesus privately promises the disciples he will send the Holy Spirit (Acts 1:4–5), and in the Gospel of John, Jesus bestows the Holy Spirit on his disciples while they are hiding in a locked room, though it appears as a breath rather than fire (John 20:22). The gloss draws a contrast between these manifestations of the Holy Spirit, meant to instill faith in Christian believers, and the public spectacle of the Antichrist raining fire onto the earth and performing other miracles for the purpose of deception and power.↩back to note source

now gyven hem to his prelatis . . . speken of God. This passage is an English interpolation not found in the AN original (Fridner, p. 107), which expresses traditional concerns about hypocritical priests and other church officials who appear righteous but commit sexual sins in private.↩back to note source

noon schal han power in holi chirche to gyve londis ne rentis ne resceyve. MS adds the phrase in holi chirche, which is not in H or in the AN original (see textual note), in order to focus the critique on church officials who earn money from “lands and rents,” a highly contentious issue in the fourteenth century especially among monastic orders, whose members were not technically allowed to own property but could do so through the legal loophole of communal ownership. John Wyclif and his Lollard followers came to believe that monastic orders, whom they called “possessioners,” and any church officials whose wealth came from land ownership, should be dispossessed by the government if they fell into mortal sin. Wyclif argues that this condition describes the entire contemporary church, which warrants forcing all clergy to return to a state of poverty (see Wyclif, De Civili Dominio, ed. Loserth, 3:49–60). The poet William Langland echoes the sentiment in Piers Plowman:

“A medicyne moot [is needed] therto that may amende prelates, That sholden preie for the pees; possession hem letteth [hinders]. Taketh hire landes, ye lordes, and let hem lyve by dymes [tithes]; If possession be poison, and inparfite hem make, Good were to deschargen hem for Holy Chirches sake, And purgen hem of poison, er [before] more peril falle.” (Langland, Piers Plowman, ed. Schmidt, 15.561–66)

↩back to note source

The MS scribe may also have added the phrase in anticipation of the anticlerical passage to follow in the gloss. (See the next note, below.)

that is to seie that he be comen . . . ypocritis and eretikis. This passage, which is an English interpolation not found in the AN original, expresses traditional concerns about corrupt priests and other “prelates” or church officials who have become wealthy through simony, the selling of ecclesiastical offices for money, so named for Simon the Magician in Acts 8:9–24, who attempts to purchase the power of the Holy Spirit from the Apostle Peter. The passage also expresses a common anticlerical suspicion that young men go to the ordre, a reference to the priesthood and also possibly religious orders of monks and friars, for the purpose of satisfying the bodili delites of gluttony and lust. For example, a late fourteenth-century Lollard sermon entitled “On the Leaven of the Pharisees,” after listing several of the sexual sins priests and friars engage in, complains that young men are attracted to these orders and their hypocritical vows of celibacy for this very reason: “It semeth the devyl gedreth [gathers] siche lumpis of yonge men, fatte and lykynge [healthy, amorous] and ydyl, and byndith hem fro wyves” (Matthew, ed., English Works, pp. 6–7). Linking priests, members of religious orders, and popes with the Antichrist is also a hallmark of John Wyclif’s writings and sermons starting in the 1370s, and a theme taken up vigorously by his followers in the Lollard movement. For example, the early fifteenth-century Lollard tract The Lanterne of Light (Dean, ed. Medieval English Political Writings) describes Antichrist metaphorically as a serpent, with the pope at its head and other church officials making up its body and tail: “in the court of Rome is the heed of Anticrist and in archebischopis and bischopis is the bodi of Anticrist. But in thise cloutid [rag-tag] sectis, as mounkis, chanouns, and freris [friars] is the venymous taile of Anticrist” (lines 319–22). In a commentary on Revelation 16, the tract also includes “the pseudo-prophete or fals prechour” as part of Antichrist’s tail (lines 399–400). As the English Apocalypse demonstrates, this anticlerical strain in English religious writing predates Wyclif and his followers, but it may help to explain why the compiler of the Plimpton manuscript, which contains Lollard material in addition to the Wycliffite New Testament, was drawn to this version of the Apocalypse in the first place.↩back to note source

The noumbre of his name . . . sothfast light. The gloss engages in somewhat tortuous numerology to find meaning in the beast’s number 666, by taking its Roman numerals, DCLXVI, and arranging them to form the Latin phrase dic lux, “to say light” which the gloss takes to mean “so-called light” or “alleged light.” The beast’s number thus represents the Antichrist, whose false light contrasts with the true light of Christ.↩back to note source

Chapter 14, Paragraph 5

Babiloyne the greet citee. The ancient city and empire of Babylon was an enemy of Israel, and much of the history, prophecy, and poetry of the Hebrew Bible revolves around Babylon’s conquering of Israel, the destruction of Jerusalem, and the Israelites who went into exile in the city of Babylon under the rule of King Nebuchadnezzar (4 Kings 25:1–12). The Book of Daniel, among others, also recounts the fall of Babylon a generation later (Daniel 5:1–31). By the time of the New Testament, Babylon had not existed for more than 500 years, but it appears in the Apocalypse as both a general figure of decadence and decay, represented as a prostitute and contrasted with the city of New Jerusalem that descends from heaven in 21:2 (21.¶1), and as a specific metaphor for Rome, whose fall is prophetically predicted throughout the Apocalypse. See, for example, verses 16:19 (16.¶12), 17:16–18 (17.¶8), and 18:2 (18.¶1).↩back to note source

his leccherie. The pronoun his in Middle English can have either a male or female antecedent, though the restrictively feminine hir is often preferred when the antecedent is female (not to be confused with the plural possessive her or here, “their”). H is relatively consistent in using his to refer to Babylon, the city which is represented throughout the Apocalypse as an immoral woman, but also occasionally uses plural pronouns. MS consistently uses feminine pronouns for Babylon in the biblical text but at times uses less restrictive pronouns in the gloss. See also note for 18.¶5, below.↩back to note source

Chapter 14, Paragraph 7

losengouris. The MED entry for losengour (n.), senses 1a to 1e, cites a wide range of possible meanings for this general term of abuse, including flatterer, liar, backbiter, calumniator, deceiver of women, hypocrite, evil counselor, rascal, coward, and idler.↩back to note source

Chapter 14, Paragraph 11

That thai weren holdun litil bi in this world and unworthi. This phrase in MS and H does not appear in the AN original, which instead interprets the imagery of the sickle and harvest as God’s desire for the company of his saints (see Fridner, p. 117). Three manuscripts of the English Apocalypse simply omit any phrase here, and another, Cambridge University St. John’s College G.25, translates the AN more accurately, though it describes the saints themselves as requesting the harvest so that they can join one another’s company: þat þei bidden oure lord sende his sikel on þe corn (Fridner, p. 117). The image of people who are “held little by the world and unworthy” does not have an obvious connection to anything in the biblical passage the gloss is interpreting here, and it is unclear where it originates.↩back to note source

Chapter 14, Paragraph 12

diche . . . lakes. These words for “ditch” and “lakes” translate the AN fosse [pit] and lai [lakes] (Fridner, p. 118), but both are the same word in the Vulgate: lacum/lacu [lake]. In context, the pit or lake where the harvested grapes are being collected and trampled is obviously a winepress. The word diche in Middle English does not in itself appear to carry this connotation, but see MED, lak(e (n.1), sense 3d, which quotes this passage from H and the Wycliffite EV.↩back to note source

Chapter 14, Paragraph 13

confessouris . . . bynde and unbynde. In context alongside the martyrs and apostles, the “confessors” in this passage are clearly those referred to in MED, confessour (n.), sense 1, “One who avows Christianity in the face of persecution and torture.” However, the group’s ability to “bind and unbind” is a reference to Matthew 16:19, in which Jesus gives the disciple Peter “keys to the kingdom,” traditionally interpreted as the spiritual authority of Christian priests. Thus confessouris seems also to refer to priests more generally, as in MED sense 2, “A priest who hears confessions, prescribes penance, and grants absolution.”↩back to note source

not peyne of Purgatorie, for it is evermore lastinge. The gloss emphasizes that the winepress of God’s wrath in the biblical passage above represents eternal hell, not merely Purgatory, the hell-like place of temporary torment for souls burdened by sins that were not absolved through the sacrament of penance during their earthly lives.↩back to note source

and othere that han cure of soulis. “Cure of souls” is the responsibility for pastoral care and spiritual guidance that a church official has for the people in a particular congregation or parish. The gloss is speaking here mainly of powerful prelates in the church and political leaders who should kepe [care for] all the people they have authority over, rather than causing them peynes and sorewis which will rise to heaven and stir God’s wrath. But the “others” who have cure of souls might also include low-ranking parish priests and lay leaders.↩back to note source

the thousynde pas and sixe hundrid. The gloss interprets a phrase that is missing from verse 14:20 (14.¶12) above — that is, the measure of distance that the blood flows at 1,600 pas [paces]. The AN gloss does not contain the phrase; it is apparently added by the Middle English translator working from the Vulgate. The Vulgate in 14:20 gives the measurement of the blood’s flow in stadia, a phonetic rendering of a word from the Apocalypse’s original Greek. The precise length of an ancient Greek stadion is unknown, but estimates are in the range of 600 feet (see MED, stadial [adj.], sense 1). LV translates stadia as furlongis [furlongs], an unrelated English measure which happens to be similar in length at one-eighth of a mile, or 656 feet. The word pas in the MS means a pace or stride, an inexact measurement but significantly shorter than the stadion or furlong. See MED, pas(e, (n.1), sense 4a, “A unit of linear measure of approximately five feet.” In comparative terms, the Vulgate and LV measure the blood as flowing nearly 200 miles, the MS approximately one and a half miles. See also note for 21.¶6, below.↩back to note source

Chapter 15, Paragraph 1

harpes of gold. A mistranslation of AN les harpes Deu [harps of God] (Fridner, p. 120), or perhaps a scribal error that changed God to golde. LV: the harpis of God.↩back to note source

Chapter 15, Paragraph 2

In that it is mengid with fier . . . Holi Gost. The Holy Ghost or Holy Spirit, the third person of the Trinity, is often depicted in the New Testament with images of fire, for example in Acts 2:3, when it appears as “tongues of fire” over the disciples at Pentecost. The dual image of the waters of baptism and the Holy Spirit’s fire, which the gloss uses to interpret the “sea of glass mingled with fire” in Revelation 15:2, also recalls John the Baptist’s prophecy that the coming Christ will “baptize you with the Holy Spirit and with fire,” in Matthew 3:11 and Luke 3:16.↩back to note source

To beren hym reverence, it schal turne to the halewen into withouten ende in the love that thei have in hym. The meaning of this sentence is obscure, in part because it is not fully clear what it refers to — it appears to be something that will turne or shift into something eternal, withouten ende, for the saints. The AN original may provide some insight here, as it says reverence for God remeindra as seinz pardurablement ove l’amur qu’il unt vers lui [will remind the saints eternally of the love they have for him] (Fridner, p. 122). The sense of the English translation may be that the belief the saints have in God (their sothfast bileve, earlier in the passage), or their reverence for him, will ultimately transform into a love that endures eternally.↩back to note source

Chapter 15, Paragraph 3

clene stone. The word apparently meant here is stole [robe], a translation of the AN purpre [fine cloth] (Fridner, p. 123) or Vulgate lino [linen], but since stone is attested in all manuscripts of the English Apocalypse, it does not appear to be a scribal error. The adjective clene as applied to stones means “bright, shining; gleaming, sparkling” (MED, clene [adj.], sense 4b), and the apparent meaning is that the angels are “clothed” or bedecked in precious jewels, but the source of this image or potential error is unclear.↩back to note source

Chapter 16, Paragraph 1

wounde. Though the AN plaie [plague] and its Middle English translation wounde are used for “plague” here and several times above (see note for 9.¶9, above), the Vulgate word here is different — vulnus [wound] rather than plaga [plague]. The affliction given to the people who follow the Beast appears to be a physical wound, perhaps sores or a skin disease. The gloss does not give any further insight to the word’s literal meaning, but it interprets the wound as temptaciouns . . . for erthly thingis and delit of her flesch (16.¶4).↩back to note source

Chapter 16, Paragraph 3

schedden the blood. The Middle English word schedden has the double meaning of “pouring out” and “shedding,” as in shedding blood (MED, sheden [v.], senses 6 and 7). Thus in addition to the poetic justice of the punishment described here, that those who shed blood are forced to drink blood, the language itself contains an ironic echo starting in verse 16:4, as the angel schede his viole [poured out his vial] in punishment on those who schedden the blood of saints. The same echo can be heard in the Vulgate, with effudit phialam [he poured out the vial] and sanguinem . . . effuderent [they shed blood], and in the AN, with espandi [poured out] and espandu [shed] (Fridner, p. 126).↩back to note source

Chapter 16, Paragraph 4

aungil of wynd. The “angel of wind” who accompanies the “angel of water” in verses 16:5–6 above (16.¶3) apparently refers to the unidentified voice in verse 7 which speaks in agreement with the first angel: “Ye, Lord, rightful and sothfast ben thi jugementis.” The association with wind, which is not in the biblical text, might reflect that the voice is disembodied.↩back to note source

Chapter 16, Paragraph 8

his techinge. Both MS techinge and H prechyng depart from the AN tormenz [torments] (Fridner, p. 129). Fridner proposes that prechyng is a misreading of the AN variant turment as serment [sermon] (p. 235n), but all three words make sense in context — both the physical torments of the Antichrist and his false preaching and teaching might cause people to forsake their faith.↩back to note source

Chapter 16, Paragraph 9

the grete day of God almyghti. The “day of the Lord” — also known in English as Judgment Day or Doomsday — is described in the Apocalypse and several other places in the New Testament as a period of time at the end of human history when Jesus will return to earth and pass divine judgment on humanity. See, for example, 1 Thessalonians 5:2 and 2 Peter 3:10. Apocalypse 6:17 above refers to it as the greet day of here [God and the Lamb’s] wraththe (6.¶12).↩back to note source

“Lo, I come as a thef . . . men see not his foulnesse.” The theme of Jesus returning suddenly, like a thief, and bringing judgment to people who may not be prepared is mentioned above in verse 3:3 (3.¶1) and runs throughout the four Gospels, particularly in parables. See, for example, Matthew 24:42–44 and Luke 12:39–40, in which Jesus’s return is compared to the owner of a house keeping watch, not knowing when a thief will break in. In a parallel to this parable, Mark 13:32–37 describes the master of a house setting his servants to guard the door while he is away — though in this case, they are warned to watch out not for thieves but for the master’s own return, whose time is unknown. Elsewhere in the New Testament, 1 Thessalonians 5:2 says the day of the Lord (see note for the grete day of God almighti, above) will come as a theef in the night (LV). Nakedness here represents unpreparedness, whereas clothing represents righteousness (see Isaias 61:10; Ephesians 6:11–17).↩back to note source

Chapter 16, Paragraph 11

froschis . . . bynymen othere her reste. The observations that frogs live in foul or muddy water and have loud croaks which keep people awake were commonplace in medieval bestiaries. For example, Isidore of Seville’s Etymologies (seventh century) says, “Frogs (rana) are named from their garrulity (compare rancare, ‘roar’) because they fill their native swamps with noise, and make their voices resound in unruly croaking” (ed. and trans. Barney, et al., 12.6.58; p. 263). The gloss associates the frogs’ loud croaking with false preaching that does not give people rest.↩back to note source

a child that cannot kepyn an appil. The origin and exact mechanics of this trick involving a child and an apple are unclear, though Whiting cites several proverbial English phrases about children loving apples that date to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries: “A Child loves an apple more than a castle,” children “love an apple more than gold,” and “A Child’s love is lost for an apple” (Whiting, C204, C207, p. 82). It is one of many examples in this glossed passage of the devil working through false “clerks” and “prelates” — that is, priests and other officials in the church’s hierarchy — to feign spiritual authority and lead people astray. These clergy are described as beholden to three of the Seven Deadly Sins — pride, coveitise [greed], and leccherie [lust] — and their false preaching is compared to the croaking of frogs in the night, which robs people of their rest (see note for froschis, above). The apple trick is one example of the wonders and false miracles that win over worldly “princes” or rulers, and “steer them against” ordinary Christians. This concern that the Antichrist’s priestly followers would lead people astray and corrupt both the church and secular authorities was a common theme in fourteenth-century English religious writing, and it would become even more prominent after the 1370s with the popularity of John Wyclif’s anticlerical writing and the rise of the Lollard movement, whose anticlericalism was often even more extreme. Though the English Apocalypse predates the Lollards by several decades, the spirited anticlericalism of passages like this one is likely one reason the compiler of the Plimpton manuscript selected it for inclusion at the end of the otherwise Wycliffite New Testament. James Morey writes that “for many reform-minded medieval clerics, the Apocalypse was not so much the last book of the Bible that recounts the end of time but an allegory of how the Antichrist represents the Pope,” and points to this passage in particular as one that “would resonate with the most strident Lollard” (Morey, “The Wycliffites,” p. 93).↩back to note source

this word Ermaledoun . . . “risynge temptatiouns.” The Hebrew place name Har Megiddo, rendered here as Ermaledoun and in most modern English translations as Armageddon, refers to a mountain or raised fortification near Megiddo, an ancient city and battlefield north of Jerusalem (see Judges 5:19; 4 Kings 23:29–30). The gloss here gives an interpretation of Har, or “raised place,” in the word’s etymology, to mean “rising temptations.” H has a slightly different reading, risyng to temptacioun, which MS may also have intended (see textual note), but the general sense is similar.↩back to note source

Chapter 16, Paragraph 13

sotil science. The word sotil, equivalent to the modern “subtle,” has a range of meanings, and in the context of this passage about devils dwelling in the air seems to have a primarily physical meaning, that the devils’ bodies are light or ethereal (see MED, sotil [adj.], sense 3c). However, sotil can also mean sly, treacherous, or deceitful (sense 2b), crafty in the manner of the “subtle serpent” in the Garden of Eden, especially when paired with science, whose primary meaning is knowledge or skill but can also mean cleverness or craftiness (see MED, science [n.], sense 4). In fact, the MED cites this line from Fridner’s edition of H as an example of sense 2b. Both the tangible and abstract meanings make sense in context, and both may be intended here — the devils are airy in substance and deceitful in their craftiness.↩back to note source

Chapter 17, Paragraph 3

maumetrie. A term of abuse derived from Mahomet, the Old English name for the Prophet Mohammed; see MED etymology for maumetri(e (n.), Old English mahometerie. In some contexts, it refers specifically to the religion of Islam, but here the term is generalized and refers to any type of false or idolatrous religion.↩back to note source

delices of the wyn . . . thei ben drunken. The gloss references here the second half of verse 2, which was dropped above (17.¶1), further evidence that the biblical copy text was incomplete or corrupt while the gloss was not. See note for 1.¶8, the maydenesse son, above.↩back to note source

“Bi her frut yee schulen knowen hem.” Matthew 7:16.↩back to note source

Chapter 17, Paragraph 9

“But oure Lord . . . his mouth,” Isaye seith. Isaias 11:4. (See also Isaias 30:27–28.)↩back to note source

thei schulen haten hem . . . as Isaye seith. It is unclear which passage in Isaias the gloss is citing here, but the image of the damned hating and reproving those whom they believe responsible for their pain echoes Isaias 8:21, in which people suffering from hunger express anger toward God and their king.↩back to note source

Chapter 18, Paragraph 2

the fornicacioun of kyngis is bitokenede leccherie. The gloss references here the second half of verse 3, which was dropped above (18.¶1), further evidence that the biblical copy text was incomplete or corrupt while the gloss was not. See note for 1.¶8, the maydenesse son, above.↩back to note source

Chapter 18, Paragraph 3

dilyces. This word for “delights,” spelled delices elsewhere in MS, is a mistranslation here. The confusion appears to come from a misreading of the Vulgate’s delictorum [sins], which the AN accurately translates as mesfèz (Fridner, p. 148).↩back to note source

Chapter 18, Paragraph 5

he sat as a quene. As this passage demonstrates, the Middle English pronouns he, hym, and hys can have either male or female antecedents. H is relatively consistent in using these pronouns for the feminine figure of Babylon, whereas MS tends to use the feminine pronouns sche and hir for Babylon in the biblical text and occasionally, as here, the less restrictive pronouns in the gloss. See also note for 14.¶5, above.↩back to note source

the fier of helle schal brennen hem, for the brennynge wil in evel. The syntax here is obscure, but the sense appears to be that the fires of hell are poetic justice for the unrighteous souls who had a “burning will to do evil.”↩back to note source

For the juge is stronge . . . book that Salomon maad. It is unclear which passage or which of “Solomon’s books” (Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Wisdom, or Ecclesiasticus) is referred to here, but see Ecclesiasticus 35:14–15.↩back to note source

Chapter 18, Paragraph 9

these marchaundis and the biggers bitokeneth symonyes. The gloss in MS gives this passage a more anticlerical interpretation than H, as it compares the merchants who weep over the destruction of Babylon to simony, the corrupt practice of selling ecclesiastical offices for money, whereas H compares the merchants to gavelers or usurers, those who lend money at interest. Simony and usury were both viewed as sins of a similar type, in that both involved the misuse of money, but simony was typically limited to priests or other church officials. Both usury and simony were also traditionally linked to the sin of “sodomy,” a broad term for any non-procreative sexual practice; for example, the Lollard proclamation Thirty-Seven Conclusions of the Lollards refers to simony as “gostli [spiritual] sodomie and eresie” (Forshall, ed., Remonstrance, p. 7). John Wyclif argues in the treatise On Simony that “just as sodomy in the time of the law of nature was one of the most serious sins against nature, so simony in the time of the law of grace is one of the most serious sins against grace” (Wyclif, On Simony, trans. McVeigh, p. 36).↩back to note source

Chapter 18, Paragraph 11

vois of the hurlyng . . . and drynkis. The gloss references here the second half of verse 22, which was dropped above (18.¶10), further evidence that the biblical copy text was incomplete or corrupt while the gloss was not. See note for 1.¶8, the maydenesse son, above.↩back to note source

the grete lordis of the world . . . preysyng and lordschipe. The phrasing in this passage is difficult, but the gloss is addressing the issue of proper limits on a lord’s or a knight’s power. The grete lordis of the world are meant to use their power for only two things: keeping the public peace and defending the church. Alternatively, the gloss says, the biblical text could be applied to those who have the responsibility to techen and governen and kepen [protect] other people, that they should be quenchid [satisfied] with the praise and authority they have received and not seek to gain more, leading to corruption and cruelty. H has an interesting mistranslation of clerkes for knyghtis in this passage (see textual note), a reading that focuses the critique on potentially corrupt church officials.↩back to note source

Chapter 19, Paragraph 8

And the grete . . . by many watris. The grete and litle in this gloss are references to the litil and michil in verse 5 (19.¶3).↩back to note source

worthili resceyven the sacrament of the auter. The “sacrament of the altar” is the Eucharist, or Communion, the ritual of eating and drinking Christ’s body and blood in the form of a bread wafer and wine, which took place at the altar in the front of a church and was the centerpiece of all medieval Christian worship services. The priest would elevate the wafer, also known as a “host,” and the chalice of wine above his head and then partake, but most non-clerical Christians would take the Eucharist only once or twice a year, for instance on Easter Sunday. The gloss’s insistence on people “worthily receiving” the sacrament is likely a reference to 1 Corinthians 11:29, the Apostle Paul’s warning that partaking unworthily could result in judgment, and to the church’s requirement that communicants go through confession and the process of penance before partaking the sacrament. The Eucharist was not the ritual that cleansed people of their sin, but rather one which united a church body with Christ through his presence. The Eucharist was also a flashpoint in anticlerical and philosophical debates in the late fourteenth century, as John Wyclif and his later followers the Lollards denied the doctrine of transubstantiation, the belief that bread and wine became the literal body and blood of Christ, and questioned whether the sacrament would lose its power if the priest himself had unconfessed sins. See also notes for 1.¶11, holi prelatis, 5.¶2, the seven sacramentis, and 13.¶9, that is to seie, above.↩back to note source

Chapter 19, Paragraph 11

“Cometh and gedere togidere . . . and of mykil.” This invitation from the angel to carrion-eating birds to attend a feast of dead bodies recalls several biblical passages in which God feeds birds with the flesh of armies or other groups he has destroyed. See, for example, Psalm 78:2, Jeremias 19:7, and Ezechiel 39:4, among many others. See also 1 Kings (1 Samuel in most modern editions) 17:44–46, in which David and Goliath each threaten to kill and feed the other to the birds, and Job 39:27–30, where after a poetic description of horses excitedly charging into battle, an eagle feeds its young with the blood of the slain. The profane feast in this passage also parodies the soper of the bridales [wedding feast] of the Lomb in verse 9 above (19.¶6), as well as the “heavenly feast” Jesus describes several times in the Gospels, both directly and in parable form. See, for example, Matthew 8:11 and 22:1–14, and Luke 13:29 and 14:15–23.↩back to note source

Chapter 19, Paragraph 12

and he that dide the wondris. The conjunction here and in AN changes the meaning of the Vulgate slightly. Rather than the false prophet himself performing wonders, there appear to be three people or groups — the Beast, false prophets, and one performing wonders. However, the next sentence says, These two ben cast into the pit, indicating that the translator knows there are only two people, the Beast and the false prophet. LV: the fals profete that made signes.↩back to note source

Chapter 19, Paragraph 13

the grete delite . . . that dampned men shulen have. The question of whether the blessed in heaven are able to observe the damned in hell — and if so, what their reaction might be — was a matter of debate among early Church Fathers. The gloss follows Thomas Aquinas in asserting that the righteous not only do not pity the damned but actively “delight” in their torments. In the Summa Theologica (ca. 1274), Aquinas argues that since souls in heaven are fully knowledgeable and perfectly happy, “Nothing should be denied the blessed that belongs to the perfection of their beatitude . . . Wherefore in order that the happiness of the saints may be more delightful to them and that they may render more copious thanks to God for it, they are allowed to see perfectly the sufferings of the damned” (Aquinas, Summa Theologica, trans. Fathers of the Dominican Province, Third Part Supplement, 94.1, p. 107).↩back to note source

“He shal sleen . . . spirit of his lippis.” Isaias 11:4.↩back to note source

But thei shulen not be in so grete peyne . . . grete joye in hevene and erthe. The gloss emphasizes that though the church will endure the painful persecution Antichrist schal doun [do] to Cristen folk, it will not be as painful or permanent as the sufferings of the damned, and it will be offset by the pleasure of seeing the wicked’s destruction. See note for the grete delite, above.↩back to note source

Chapter 20, Paragraph 3

His profetis . . . seiden hem the sothe. This passage within the English interpolation is clearly anticlerical, as it describes the devil’s prophets within the church, including prideful men, lechers, and losengeris [flatterers]. However, its precise sense is unclear at a few points. The phrase maken hem holi might refer to the flatterers making themselves holy, by establishing themselves in holy orders through ordination, or it might mean they confer holiness upon their wealthy and powerful parishioners, perhaps through flattery or through absolution within the sacrament of penance. Either way, they do so for wrong reasons, either for drede, fear of those parishioners, for love, or for ler, loss. MS repeats love twice in a clear scribal error; H uses the alliterative phrase for love oither for ler. Fridner proposes lof [praise] as the intended word in place of love (p. 244n), which makes more sense in context — the flattering priests do their dishonest work in the church out of fear, or in order to win praise, or because they will face loss if they do not. The next sentence continues this theme and appears to reference the priests’ dishonesty in preaching, as they will not gain anything they hope from their parishioners if they seiden hem the sothe [tell them the truth].↩back to note source

The put he caste him in . . . that is the fend of helle. This section of commentary is an English interpolation that does not appear in the AN original (Fridner, pp. 170–71, 244n). It contains anticlerical themes likely to be attractive to the Lollard compiler of the Plimpton manuscript, including the statement that hypocritical preachers who deceive their flocks are werse than any devel in helle.↩back to note source

Chapter 20, Paragraph 4

Gog and Magog . . . gravel of the see. Gog and Magog were ancient kings or kingdoms, which warred against Israel and were the subject of several prophecies of Ezekiel (see Ezechiel 38–39). In the Apocalypse, Gog and Magog become general symbols for the enemies of God’s people. Gravel of the sea [sand on the seashore] is a biblical metaphor for a massive uncountable army — see, for example, Josue 11:4 and Judges 7:12.↩back to note source

Chapter 20, Paragraph 6

the dede and the qwyk. A mistranslation of the AN les morz granz and petiz [the dead great and small] (Fridner, p. 175). LV: dede men greete and smale.↩back to note source

Chapter 21, Paragraph 3

and of grace. A mistranslation of the Vulgate gratis [freely] which originates with AN: et par grace [and of grace] (Fridner, p. 178). The full verse translated accurately in LV reads: I shal gife freli [freely] of the welle of qwik [living] watir to him that thirsteth. The mistranslation, however, allows the subsequent gloss to discourse at length on the subject of God’s saving grace in Christ (21.¶4).↩back to note source

and to hem that loven huntyng. A mistranslation of the AN ces qui enveniment [those who poison] (Fridner, p. 178). This verse and the gloss that follows (21.¶4) are the only places MS includes hunters among the list of sinners; H does so here and also in 9:20 and 22:15 (see textual notes for 9.¶9 and 22.¶6). Fridner speculates that the translator drew a connection between the AN venefique [poisoner] and venëor [hunter], from the Latin venator (pp. 226–27). MS adds the more accurate venym doeres [poisoners, sorcerers] to the list as well, which H does not.↩back to note source

Chapter 21, Paragraph 5

margaritis. All manuscripts of the English Apocalypse contain this description of pearls in the twelve gates of the heavenly city. It might appear at first to be a mistranslation of the AN angeles [angels] (Fridner, p. 184) and Vulgate angelos, which the LV translates angelis. However, pearls also appear in the twelve gates a few verses later, in 21:21 (21.¶10), rendered in the Vulgate as margaritae [pearls]. While it is unclear exactly why the Middle English translation cuts the angels from verse 12 and replaces them with pearls, the word choice should be viewed as an interpretive translation that looks ahead in the text rather than a mistranslation. For more on the symbolic significance of pearls, see the note for 21.¶10, below.↩back to note source

Chapter 21, Paragraph 6

twelve thousand paas. The translation of the AN pas [paces] (Fridner, p. 185) gives a significantly smaller sense of size than the Vulgate stadia, which are roughly 600 feet, or the LV translation’s furlongis, at 650 feet (see note for 14.¶13, the thousynde pas, above). It is unclear why the translators chose a shorter measure, but in comparative terms, the heavenly city in the Vulgate and LV is approximately 1,500 miles long; in the AN and English Apocalypse, it is less than twelve miles long.↩back to note source

Chapter 21, Paragraph 7

vertu. A mistranslation of AN verdur (Fridner, p. 185). The Middle English verdure [green, flourishing] would be a better choice, as it would give a double meaning to the jasper’s green color, in the same way that the crystal’s physical brightnesse represents the spiritual brightness of baptism and penance.↩back to note source

Chapter 21, Paragraph 9

stedfast bileeve as Abraham hadde. The patriarch Abraham, through whom God makes a covenant with the people of Israel that they will inherit the Promised Land of Canaan (Genesis 15:1–20), is held up by the Apostle Paul in the New Testament as a paragon of faith. In Romans 4:1–25 and Galatians 3:6–9, Paul draws a distinction between Abraham’s faith and his works, using Genesis 15:6 to argue that Christians are counted righteous in God’s eyes the same way Abraham was, for their faith in Christ. See also James 2:21–24, which uses Abraham’s faith to make a different argument about faith and works, and Hebrews 11:8–19, which recounts the life of Abraham as one of several ancient heroes of faith. In the gloss, Abraham’s stedfast bileeve is compared to the “cleanness” of the gemstone jasper. The word clene in its literal sense means physically pure or clean (MED, clene [adj.], sense 1), when applied to a gemstone “bright, shining; gleaming, sparkling” (sense 4b), and in its figurative sense “morally clean, righteous, pure” (sense 2a).↩back to note source

“Oure conversacioun is in heven.” Philippians 3:20. For the definition of conversacioun, a translation of the Vulgate conversatio and AN conversatiun (Fridner, p. 190), see MED, conversacioun (n.), senses 2a and 3. LV translates it as living.↩back to note source

Sardonycle that is of thre coloures. The three-layered stone described here is sardonyx, the fifth stone listed in verse 21:20 (21.¶8). The sixth stone, sardoyne [sard, carnelian] is missing in the gloss’s list and does not receive an interpretation. H lists the three-colored stone as sardoyne, an apparent error caused by the two stones’ nearly identical spelling; carnelian is typically solid in color, and as Fridner observes, “sardonyx . . . is required here because it is layered” (p. 247). Two manuscripts of the English Apocalypse — Cambridge, Caius College 231/117 and Manchester, Rylands Library English 92 — supply an interpretation for a sixth stone called sardins, which is simply an alternate spelling for sardonyx (see MED, sardin(e [n.] and also verse 4:3 [4.¶1]). Their descriptions, however, seem to fit better with the red carnelian, a confusion no doubt again due to the similar spelling of sardonycle and sardoyne. The gloss in Rylands Library English 92 reads: Sardins is of reed colour as he brynnyde [as if it burned]. This colour techeth men how Crist conforteth mennes charité [inspires people’s love] and maketh hem bolde to be martires [martyrs] and shede her blood for his love (Fridner, p. 190).↩back to note source

cold. A mistranslation of AN froter [rubbing] (Fridner, p. 191); the translator likely read froid [cold]. Topaz does not change color in the cold, but rubbing may cloud and darken its natural light color, a metaphor the commentary applies to the wise who do not give their hearts to the world.↩back to note source

That the wal is jasper . . . and bidden for hem. The list of symbolic meanings for the twelve gemstones in the heavenly city draws from the tradition of medieval lapidaries, reference works on the properties of precious and semi-precious stones. Though the tradition was ancient and often associated with astrology and magic, Christian lapidaries produced by such writers as Isidore of Seville (seventh century) and Marbod of Rennes (twelfth century) were popular in the Middle Ages and focused on biblical references, including this passage from Apocalypse 21:18–21. Gemstones in the Bible, when they are given explicit interpretations, typically represent wisdom. See, for example, Job 28:12–19, which lists several gemstones, along with silver and gold, and concludes that wisdom is more valuable than all of them. See also the descriptions of the heavenly city in the late fourteenth-century poem Pearl, which are taken directly from the Apocalypse and include a rhyming list of the twelve stones (Andrew and Waldron, eds., Poems of the Pearl Manuscript, pp. 101–02; lines 985–1020).↩back to note source

Chapter 21, Paragraph 10

margaritis. Pearls held a wide range of symbolic meanings in Christian literature of the fourteenth century. Two of these potential symbols are noted in the gloss for this verse (21.¶12), where the cleanness and brightness of a pearl represents virtue and purity. The Middle English word bright, whose literal meaning refers to the physical brightness or a light or jewel (MED, bright [adj.], sense 1), carries the figurative sense of “morally pure, free of sin,” “enlightened,” or “splendid, glorious” in virtue (sense 5). An excellent source for exploring the multifaceted significance of pearls is the late fourteenth-century poem Pearl (Andrew and Waldron, eds., Poems of the Pearl Manuscript, pp. 53–110). The “pearl” of Pearl is both a young girl who has died, who appears to the narrator as a queen of heaven in a dream vision, and the recurring image of a precious jewel that represents spiritual truths to the Dreamer, who frequently refers to himself as a “jeweler.” The pearl is “wemlez [flawless], clene, and clere, / And endelez rounde [eternally round]” (lines 737–38), representing righteous perfection, truth, and eternity. The poem references Jesus’s parable of the Pearl of Great Price (Matthew 13:45–46), in which a merchant sells everything to obtain a pearl which may represent wisdom (see also Matthew 7:6), salvation, heaven, or Christ himself (lines 729–35). Some commentators have also noted that the size, shape, and color of the pearl recalls a Eucharistic wafer, the sacramental element of Christ’s body (see Baldwin, “Sacramental Perfection in Pearl, Patience, and Cleanness,” p. 129).↩back to note source

Chapter 21, Paragraph 11

hethene men. Verse 21:26 does not appear in the Anglo-Norman Apocalypse (Fridner, p. 248) and may be translated directly from the Vulgate or borrowed from LV. There is no commentary for it in the gloss below. The word MS translates as hethene men and H as the folk (see textual note, thei schulen bryng glorie) is the Vulgate gentium, meaning “the nations” and often translated in modern editions as “the Gentiles.” See note for 11.¶2, above.↩back to note source

Chapter 22, Paragraph 2

the cros. The cross of Jesus’s Crucifixion is frequently referred to in Middle English literature as a “tree,” or the “tree of death,” in ironic contrast with the Tree of Life in the Garden of Eden and in the New Jerusalem of the Apocalypse. See MED, tre (n.), sense 1b.↩back to note source

“That is lyf . . . whom he sent.” John 17:3.↩back to note source

“He that avoweth . . . my Fader in hevene.” Matthew 10:32.↩back to note source

is expouned bifore. The absence of sun, moon, and lantern in the heavenly city is interpreted above in the gloss for verse 21:23 (21.¶12): whanne it is glorified it schal han no myste [need] of prechynge ne of techere ne of kepere [guard].↩back to note source

Chapter 22, Paragraph 7

Thei doon as the hond doith . . . for thei been not sory for here synnes. See 2 Peter 2:20–22. The analogy of a dog returning to eat its own vomit comes from Proverbs 26:11. See also Whiting H567 (p. 295).↩back to note source

Chapter 22, Paragraph 8

“I am rote and kynd of Davyth.” See note for 5.¶1, above.↩back to note source

Chapter 22, Paragraph 14

false discretifris . . . to wynnen erthli goodis. The gloss includes among those who are subject to the Apocalypse’s curses discretfris, experts in papal decretals known as “decretists.” See MED, decretiste (n.), which notes that the term is “used contemptuously.” The gloss says that these experts, with their overly subtle readings, turn the gostli or spiritual insights of scripture into a means by which they can win worldly wealth.↩back to note source

“That day ne that houre . . . oneli the Fader.” Mark 13:32.↩back to note source