schire. In the Middle Ages a shire was a province or subdivision of a county. Many cities in England retain suffixes that indicate a seat of government. A modern analogue for shire would be county.

As the notes to the other romances have reminded us, in Middle English, double and even triple negatives add emphasis. Unlike in modern English a double negative does not constitute an affirmative.

That the emperor of Germany is a former lover as indicated here sets up the unhappy marital relation. The bride, who is never identified except as Bevis’ mother, is dissatisfied because her choice of husband has been thwarted by her father’s unilateral decision.

tresoun mest. Treason in the Middle Ages connotes treachery or betrayal of someone to whom one owes loyalty. Treason is thus not only a personal transgression, but a political transgression as well.

The earl wears less armor than he would if he knew he were facing a combat situation.

The exaggerated number of knights is a convention of medieval romance. Often the hero performs superhuman deeds in battle killing hundreds and thousands of opponents single-handedly. See line 4532 for the extreme instance.

The messenger speaks the words he is told to speak, conveying the message verbatim. Messengers play an important role in medieval romance; they not only convey dialogue, but act as narrative links. Oftentimes the messenger takes the brunt of the recipient’s anger. Bevis himself will play the role of messenger later in the poem.

Vile houre. Bevis calls his mother a “vile whore” and wishes her to be drawn to death. Drawing or dragging, usually accompanied by quartering, entailed tying each limb to a separate rope then pulling the body in opposing directions by four horses, literally tearing the victim’s body into four pieces. The punishment was usually reserved for felons of the worst sort.

alle wif. Bevis imagines his mother a madame in a brothel.

That child she smot with hire honde. One of many scenes of domestic violence. Not recognized by medieval law, violence among family members was considered a private matter with parents having customary rights to corporal punishment of their children.

meister. Although Saber is Bevis’ uncle he is also his guardian, mentor, or, perhaps, teacher, which is a common gloss on ME maister. See also lines 487 ff. where Bevis comes to his “teacher’s” defense. Saber’s name may have significance (from OE sigebush, meaning “victory fortress”); Saber is the faithful keeper of the estate and the faith, throughout Bevis’ prolonged absence, and ultimately becomes earl of Hampshire. He is not to be confused with the bishop of Cologne, Saber Florentine, who appears in lines 2926 ff.

Like the huntsman in Snow White and various other folk narratives, Saber circumvents the commands of a wicked mother by slaying an animal.

Scherewe. From this term derives “shrew.” In the Middle Ages the term connoted “rascal,” “rogue,” “wicked person,” “evil-doer,” and “unruly or ill-disciplined child.” It could also refer to an overbearing woman.

The role of the porter is often stressful in medieval literature since it is he who decides who is worthy of entrance into the city or castle.

Bevis’ novel means of entry defies protocol.

Wo hem was for the childes sake. The knights sympathize with Bevis and let him go. Perhaps, they are also afraid of him.

painim londe. The term could mean anyplace outside of Christian Europe. Painim could refer to any group of people not practicing Christianity.

Bevis’ mother is participating in an activity that goes well beyond fostering and is reminiscent of the actions of Joseph’s brothers when they sell him into slavery in Genesis. Or perhaps Orestes, when Clytemnestra puts him away. Like Orestes, Bevis will return seeking vengeance for the murder of his father. Fortunately for him the mother dies on her own so that he is not compelled to exact justice for her treason. But he does take care of her lover, his stepfather.

The trip is given short shrift. In the course of two lines, they have sailed out of England and arrived in the Middle East. The land, as indicated in other MSS, is called Ermony, which usually refers to Armenia.

The contrast between snow and blood as well as the attention to the shoes on Josian’s feet recall fairy tale motifs such as those of Cinderella, Snow White, and Rose Red. The allusion would not be farfetched since fairy tales and folk tales, then as now, were present in virtually every culture in the world. Both genres are integrally related to medieval romance.

Mahoun was a common name for Mohammed in Middle English. In the standard Middle English treatment of the Islamic people (most often called Saracens in Middle English), he is treated as one of many “pagan” gods, rather than as the historical prophet of the one God, whose Arabic name is Allah.

Wikked beth fele wimmen to fonde. Proverbial, though not cited in Whiting or Tilley. The sense is “Many women prove to be wicked.”

Apolyn is another of the “pagan” gods of the Saracens according to medieval understanding. This treatment of Islam is commonplace in English romances, especially the English Charlemagne romances. See Alan Lupack, ed., Three Middle English Charlemagne Romances (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, 1990).

The Saracen finds Bevis’ ignorance laughable because even he knows the significance of the day.

losengers. According to the MED this term has a range of meaning including: “one who curries favor,” “a flatterer,” “liar,” “backbiter,” “calumniator,” “hypocrite,” “traitorous counselor,” “rascal,” “coward.”

Lemman. A term of endearment usually reserved for one’s beloved. Bevis’ response to Josian’s declaration suggests an epiphany born of love.

seith the bok. The poet uses a convention of medieval romance to lend authority to his narrative. Often the “book” is French. Here it may be more than convention since this poem has a French source.

maught. Though the usual sense is “might” or “strength,” when used to describe a weapon the sense may be “power,” “craftsmanship,” or “virtue.”

The naming of a sword is commonplace in medieval romance and epic: Arthur’s Excalibur, Gawain’s Galantyne, Beowulf’s Hrunting, Roland’s Durandal, Oliver’s Glorious, and Siegfried’s Griel are a few.

Josian’s equation of love-longing as captivation is a feature of medieval ideas of courtly love. Love captures its victim with a hook or arrow and causes pain and suffering. As Andreas Capellanus explains in the Art of Courtly Love: “love is like an inborn suffering.”

Bevis’ decision to take the decapitated head of the boar to the king rather than to Josian (see line 832) is no doubt related to the attack of the envious steward. He needs to prove his deed, i.e., the slaying of the beast. The steward’s plan to steal the boar’s head away from Bevis in order to claim his own prowess is thwarted when Bevis, in the process of defending himself, kills the steward and his accomplices. He then has an opportunity to bring the head of the steward to the king but decides against it. He has already been charged with treason once. Should the king misconstrue Bevis’ story, he could face another charge of treason. Josian, who witnesses the whole scene, discloses Bevis’ act later as an endorsement of his candidacy for knighthood.

Brademond threatens to deflower Josian and pass her on to a member of the lower classes, a serious threat indeed, given the value placed upon female virginity and social ranking in the Middle Ages.

ferste scheld trome. trome (from OE truma) is a rank of warriors, a body of armed men; the ferste scheld is the vanguard, the first ward. Bevis leads his choice retainers into battle, a gesture to which the enemy instantly responds. In E the equivalent gesture is contained in the line Beues gan than his horne blowe, to which the enemy responds.

wod. We have borrowed the anachronistic gloss “berserk” from Scott’s nineteenth-century usage (OED) to describe the “wodness” of medieval battle frenzy. Scott’s neologism provides a useful modern term for which there is no better equivalent.

St. Martin, probably of Tours (316–97), was a soldier who later became a monk and bishop in Gaul. While Martin was still a soldier, he came upon a naked beggar near Amiens in Northern France and cut his cloak in half to give the poor man something to wear. Later Martin dreamed that Christ himself was the beggar. Martin’s life and frequent miracles were popular legend in the Middle Ages. His feast day, 8 November, became known in England as Martinmas. See David Hugh Farmer, Oxford Dictionary of Saints (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 265–66.

daunger. This term is often related to the practices of courtly love, wherein a would-be lover could act in an aloof and distant manner. According to the MED it could also mean “domination, power, control, or possession” and “threaten to cause difficulty or damage” as Josian seems to here, at least in Bevis’ perception of her declamation of love.

wimmannes bolt is sone schote. Proverbial; not in Tilley or Whiting. The proverb implies lack of discretion, sone suggesting “haste” or “carelessness.” Compare Malory’s The Great Tournament, where the huntress shoots anone and misses the hind but hits Lancelot’s buttocks.

St. Julian is the patron saint of hospitality.

A cleimede his eritage. To claim a heritage is to assert a legal right to something, to demand title to something.

Tervagaunt (usually Termagant) is another member of the Saracen pantheon.

kende. We have glossed the term as “gentle,” which seems to be closest to the primary sense of the term in this unctuous usage; “noble,” “lordly,” “spirited,” “courageous,” “brave,” “dutiful,” or “loyal” might do as well. See MED kinde (adj.) 4 and 5.

Though a scoundrel, Brademond has some sense of honor; since Bevis once defeated him but did not kill him, Brademond will imprison Bevis rather than execute him. Had Bevis not previously shown his prowess, Brademond says that he would have executed him before sundown.

under the fet. The point is that Bevis will no longer eat from a table. His prison is a pit twenty fathoms deep. Food and drink are dropped to him. That the stench would be suffocating is no harder to imagine than it would be to endure. Entrance and egress is by rope, which later proves to be his salvation. See lines 1537 ff.

A quarter was an actual unit of measurement for grain. According to the OED it was equal to eight bushels of wheat.

That I lovede ase min hertte blode. Josian’s expression of love is intensified by the anatomical reference.

Magic rings are commonplace in romance traditions. Lunette gives one to Yvain in Chrétien de Troyes’ Yvain: The Knight with the Lion to protect him from harm. Rings are also used as means of identification or for signifying a courtly relation. Lapidary was a subject of great interest in the Middle Ages and gemstones often had symbolic meaning as proof of their power.

His browe stank. Apparently the wound on his forehead putrefies before forming the scar.

The suffering servant motif seems to be operating here. Exegetical tradition holds Christ to be the prototype. Bevis’ descent and eventual ascent may mark him as a Christ figure or at the very least a mythic hero in Northrop Frye’s sense of the term. See The Secular Scripture.

fox welp. An insult equivalent to heathen hound.

undertide. A: undetide. Kö’s emendation. The time designated by this term is noon, thought to be a particularly significant moment during the day, i.e., the time at which demons could tempt vulnerable humans. See John Block Friedman, “Eurydice, Heurodis, and the Noon-day Demon,” Speculum 41 (1996), 22–29.

In this somewhat convoluted comparison, a contrast is made between the innocence of fish, who as creatures lacking reason are not able to sin, and the perfidy of Saracens, who are thought by implication to be guilty of the death of Christ.

Bevis is making a grim and ironic joke about the tonsure, the “close shave” that identified medieval clerics.

The sense is “if King Brademond and all his offspring were right there.”

The beggar’s or pilgrim’s disguise is a popular practice in medieval romance as well as epic poems such as Homer’s Odyssey. An effective strategy for entering a hostile city, it suggests the “invisibility” of those members of society at the bottom of the social ladder.

Perhaps the sense is that “it is many a man’s bane to be laughed at today before the steed is caught,” that is, many will try and fail (before Bevis comes along).

The sense here is that if in England anyone can testify that Josian is married, she will return to her homeland with nothing but the smock on her back. She is suggesting that the marriage is unconsummated, which would render the relation invalid.

chevalrie. The term might be glossed as “chivalry,” but in the sense of “horsemanship” rather than “courtesy,” which subsequently displaces the earlier meaning.

Ascopart. Giants enjoy a long and varied history in Scripture and medieval romance. They are depicted usually as villains, apostates, arrogant, threatening monsters, and descendants of Cain (e.g., Nimrod, Goliath, Grendel, and the giants of Rabelais). There is at least one exception to the negative portrayal of giants through the ages: St. Christopher, a benevolent giant, is said to have carried the Christ child across a treacherous river. In Bevis, Ascopard is remarkable in that he falls in between.

The lions seem to be in a rampant position similar to how they would appear in heraldry.

A commonplace of medieval lore was that virginity could confer invulnerability. Also, the taming of wild beasts occurs through their recognition of the virgin queen. Only a female virgin could lure the wild unicorn into her presence. In iconography the unicorn lies blissfully with its head in the virgin’s lap.

upon a mule. Where this mule comes from is not explained. It simply appears when needed as the knight and his lady set out. Given the recent fact of Josian’s conversion, the trope perhaps suggests female virtue. Compare Gower’s Constance in Confessio Amantis as she rides out to meet her father “Upon a Mule whyt amblaunt” (II.1506) and Una’s mount as she sets out with Redcrosse Knight in the Faerie Queene, I.i.29 Or it may simply be an appropriate mount for a royal woman as in King Alexander, where Cleopatra “rod on a mule white so milk” (line 1031). Religious connotations are also possible as seen in Jesus’ entrance into Jerusalem; riding on an ass rather than a warhorse denotes him as the Prince of Peace, not a conquering military hero. The Virgin Mary is also depicted in iconography riding an ass toward Jerusalem to give birth, then later during the flight into Egypt. The “wild ass” was associated with Ishmael and became a symbol of conversion.

Who is this with the grete visage. The bishop is referring to Ascopard.

dragoun. The dragon (“drake” or serpent) is one of the most vivid beasts created by the medieval European imagination. As serpent it represents the archetype of temptation in the Garden of Eden. In its more imaginative manifestations it becomes the beast of Revelation, a symbol of pure evil, who opposes the archangel Michael and his angelic forces. Its presence in medieval romance usually points to the hero’s extraordinary prowess.

Wade, Lancelot, and Guy of Warwick are great heroes in the romance tradition. By comparing Bevis’ exploits to theirs, the author is authenticating Bevis’ credentials as a hero of the first rank, and is also exemplifying the fact that the romance is a self-conscious genre, with individual romances constantly referring to characters and incidents in other romances and to their own sources. Notice, for example, the number of times in Bevis that we are given lines such as “as the book saith,” or “as the French book saith.” Such lines also remind us that medieval writers held written authority in high esteem. A reference to an earlier book is not simply a footnote, but a validation from an “auctor.” (This Latin word means both author and authority at the same time.)

Apulia is in Southern Italy, as is Calabria. One of the distinguishing features of Bevis is a kind of geographical sweep. Italy here joins with Germany, the near east, and many parts of England as part of that sweep.

Tuscany is in north-central Italy. It is the region of such cities as Florence, Siena, and Pisa.

The cholle is that part of a dragon’s anatomy which extends from the chin to the throat and from ear to ear.

wintonne. A wine tun is a wine barrel.

Thanne a herde. Bevis’ vision comes in two phases: first a vision of one wounded by a mad king who is saved by a virgin; and second of one swollen with venom from a dragon. Both visions pertain to his own precarious situation.

There are many saints named John. Perhaps the invocation is to John of Patmos, who, in the Middle Ages, is often credited with the writing of the Book of Revelation. The apocalyptic, cosmic battle depicted there features a fierce, seven-headed dragon.

Bevis’ taking of refuge in the healing well as he fights the dragon is echoed in Redcrosse Knight’s retreat to the well of virginal virtue after the first and second days of fighting in Spenser’s Faerie Queene. Note Bevis’ second venture in the well in lines 2850 ff. It is not mere coincidence that in line 2817 Bevis calls upon St. George for strength. See note to line 2817.

of is helm a drank thore. The line is perhaps echoed in Chaucer’s Tale of Sir Thopas (CT VII.15), though there the parallel is attributed to “sire Percyvell.”

St. George is the martyr and patron of England. The story of George and the dragon was immensely popular, disseminated through the twelfth-century Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine which was then translated by William Caxton in the fifteenth century. But, according to the Oxford Dictionary of Saints, the story was known in England as early as the seventh century. Edmund Spenser’s portrayal of Redcrosse Knight in the Fairie Queene reiterates St. George’s status as patron saint of England.

The story of Jesus’ raising of Lazarus from the dead is told in the Gospel according to John, ch. 11. Because it was considered one of Jesus’ definitive miracles, it is often used when asking God’s help in extremely precarious, not to say seemingly hopeless, situations.

bacinet. A basinet is a supplementary cap worn under the helmet.

The cholle is that part of a dragon’s anatomy which extends from the chin to the throat and from ear to ear.

yenede swithe wide. Because of its armor plate the only way that Bevis can get to the dragon’s heart is through its throat; thus the dragon’s wide-mouthed gasp proves fatal to the beast.

Ac ever, an erneste and a rage. Perhaps this suggests that he was not only serious, but angry as well.

Note the irony of giving Bevis a version of his own history.

The sense of this passage seems to be that because the emperor has sex with his wife too frequently, his aim has been affected. Distorted vision, thought to be an effect of sexual excess, is also used as a metaphor by some medieval writers.

It was not unusual for witnesses to observe a newly married couple in bed in order to validate the marriage. The issue of whether consent or sexual intercourse were necessary for a valid marriage was vexed in the Middle Ages. David Herlihy writes: “The most common opinion was that consent alone was sufficient, but some experts continued to affirm that physical union perfected the marriage and rendered it binding” (Medieval Households [Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985], p. 80).

Kö provides the following explanation of “rail-tree”: “On bed curtains, see Our English Home, p. 101: ‘Bed-curtains hung upon rails of ‘tre’ or metal were in use [at this time] . . .” (p. 323).

A caudle is a drink, often taken for medicinal purposes, consisting of thin gruel, wine, and spices.

Mani hondes maketh light werk. Whiting cites Bevis (c. 1300) as the earliest recorded instance of this proverb.

A pitched battle is a particular strategy in medieval warfare.

As Kö notes, the King of Scotland dies later at the hands of Ascopard. According to the French text, Saber murders the Scottish king.

Whitsunday is the English name for Pentecost, the Christian feast, coming fifty days after Easter, which celebrates the descent of the Holy Spirit to the Apostles and is considered the “birthday” of the Christian church. It is described in Acts of the Apostles, ch. 2.

Horse races for the accumulation of wealth are not often found in medieval romance. But they were common in practice. See, for example, The Voyage of Ohtere, where the one with the swiftest horse gets the most. Here the race functions as a demonstration of Arondel’s “horsepower.”

Ascopard’s betrayal is ostensibly caused by Bevis’ fall into poverty, but is just as likely a jealous response. The proclivities of fairweather friends appear in other Middle English romances. See, for instance, Sir Cleges in Middle English Breton Lays, ed. Anne Laskaya and Eve Salisbury (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, 1995). Nonetheless, Ascopard does have trouble maintaining credibility, despite his good deeds.

Childbirth was strictly the provenance of women in the Middle Ages. Josian’s rejection of male interference reflects that custom. Also, the birth of twins is notable since medieval folklore sometimes held that multiple births were the consequence of many fathers rather than one. Often, because of the social stigma the birth of twins accrued, one twin could be subject to death or exile. See Lay le Freine, for instance.

Josian is invoking the Virgin’s help in childbirth.

The abduction of the heroine is particularly violent. Other abductions such as that of Guenevere have not been depicted as brutally as this scene. Adding to the brutality is the fact of Josian’s recent parturition and the abandonment of her twins.

“Heathen” seems to be a curious way to describe the children. As we find out a few lines later (line 3734), however, it refers to the fact that they have not yet been baptized, a condition that is swiftly remedied.

A mark was an accounting measure (not an actual coin) used in medieval England, equal to thirteen shillings fourpence.

Though it is not clear whether Aumbeforce is a real or an imagined place from the text, A. C. Baugh points out that in the Anglo-Norman original Aumberforce is the city of Seville (p. 21).

St. Thomas of India is actually one of the twelve original apostles, most famous as “doubting Thomas,” because of the story in John’s Gospel (ch. 20) in which he refuses to believe the resurrection of Christ until he can put his fingers in Christ’s wounds. According to ancient tradition he brought the gospel to India, where he was martyred.

Terri’s answer to Bevis is a way of saying that they have never been cowards, that is, they have never been afraid to fight face to face.

The Spanish city of Toledo was famous for the manufacture of steel and weapons. The form of the word is French, indicating the influence of the Anglo-Norman version of Bevis.

St. James and St. Giles are both important pilgrimage saints. James, one of the twelve original apostles, was thought to have preached in Spain. Santiago de Compostela, in northwestern Spain, where his body was thought to be found, was one of the most important pilgrimage centers of the Middle Ages, the most important in western Europe. Giles, a hermit from either the sixth or eighth century, is the patron saint of cripples and beggars. His shrine — Saint-Gilles, in Provence — was also an important pilgrimage center in the Middle Ages.

This probably refers to the entire eastern Mediterranean, rather than to anything more specific.

Josian’s entrepreneurial activity, i.e., “as a minstrel,” recalls an episode in the romance of Apollonius of Tyre in which Apollonius’ abducted daughter escapes service in a foreign brothel by thwarting the desire of those seeking her services by her rhetoric. Once out, she takes up harp playing and pedagogy to support herself.

pleide at the talvas. A talevas is a round shield, or buckler. To play at the talevas is an idiom for fencing. See MED talevard.

This refers to a king’s ransom. By comparison Chaucer was ransomed for £16 when he was captured by the French during the Hundred Years War. This was considered a significant amount of money in the fourteenth century.

tan. A northern form of taken, the sense being to “turn attention to” (MED taken 23a); “to embrace,” “consider,” “pick up,” “proceed,” “perceive a course,” “assent,” “apply ourselves,” or “follow counsel,” “take up the thread,” or “deliberate.”

The purse and staff here signify that Saber is going in the guise of a pilgrim.

As the notes to the earlier romances indicate, time was usually measured according to the monastic offices or prayer services. Prime is the first of the monastic offices, which takes place at 6 a.m. Prime can thus refer specifically to 6 a.m. or to the time between 6 and 9 a.m. Undern refers to the time between 9 a.m. and 1 p.m., or sometimes noon to 3 p.m.

The sense of this is that Bevis’ prayers have tamed the valor of Yvor.

is owene sone Terry. That is to say, we are back talking about Saber’s own son, not Bevis’ sons, who are mentioned in the previous verse.

As the notes to the earlier romances indicate, time was usually measured according to the monastic offices or prayer services. Undern refers to the time between 9 a.m. and 1 p.m., or sometimes noon to 3 p.m.

The Harrowing of Hell is the medieval English term for Christ’s descent into hell after His death to defeat the powers of evil. This is also one of the most widely depicted scenes in medieval literature, art, and drama, often vividly presenting Christ opening the jaws of hell-mouth and leading the Old Testament patriarchs and prophets to salvation. See, for example, William Langland’s Piers Plowman B.XVIII.270 ff. (Skeat 1.538–40) for a powerful Middle English version of this event.

This seems to be an especially roundabout way of saying that they killed them.

That he ne lai ded upon the grounde. / And whan Beves segh that sighte, / In hertte he was glad and lighte. The order here is difficult and convoluted. Perhaps it goes something like this: “So that he might get there [without delay], he did not dare ask for a doctor to heal his wound so that he should not lie dead on the ground.” The final line here starts to move off on a tangent.

ledene halle. Kö capitalizes Ledene. MED does cite Ledynhall as a specific place name, noting that the place was also called Laurence Hall.

Sein Lauarauns. Saint Lawrence died as a deacon and martyr in Rome in 258 A.D. He is usually depicted with a gridiron, on which he was reputed to have been executed by roasting. Relics of St. Lawrence were sent from Rome to King Oswin of Northumbria in the seventh century.